1925 - 1939 Zog I : originally Ahmed Bey Zogu; became president after defeating ousting liberal
Noli; Albania was a virtual protectorate
of Italy, which invaded in 1939
1943 - 1985 Enver Hoxha : formed Albanian Communist Party; broke with USSR after it
Renounced Stalism in 1961
Armenia
1998 - 2008 Robert Kocharyan; Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsyan was killed in
Parliament in 1999
1835 - 1848 Ferdinand I : controlled by von Metternich; abdicated after December
1848 revolution
1848 - 1916 Francis Joseph : established Austria-Hungary dual monarchy in 1867;
nephew Francis
Ferdinand assassinated by
Serbian Princip; started WWI
1916 - 1918 Charles I : Austria-Hungary emperor during WWI; supported France in
secret letter
about
Alsace-Lorraine; twice tried to regain Hungarian throne in 1921; exiled to
Madeira
1986 - 1992 Kurt Waldheim : ambassador to Canada; UN secretary-general
1972-1981; elected
Austrian president in 1986
despite possible Nazi war crimes
Belarus
1994
- ? Aleksandr Lukashenko : authoritarian
1831 - 1865 Leopold I : married Charlotte Augusta, daughter of British George IV;
first monarch
of Belgium after separation
from Netherlands in 1831; signed treaty assuring Belgian neutrality
1865 - 1909 Leopold II : established association to develop central Africa;
financed Henry
Stanley's exploration of
Zaire River; given Congo Free State at Berlin Conference 1885; annexed
Belgian Congo 1908; forced
to institute reforms
1909 - 1934 Albert I : warned France of German war plans and announced Belgian
neutrality;
when Germans invaded Belgium he undertook delaying actions
1934 - 1951 Leopold III : quickly surrendered to Germany; suspected of treason;
exonerated in
1946 and won referendum
permitting return; abdicated 1951
1951 - 1993 Baudouin
1993 - 2013 Albert II : brother of Baudouin
2013
- ? Philippe
852 - 889 Boris I : forced by Byzantine Michael III to adopt Christianity;
retired to monastery but
later deposed his corrupt
son Vladimir, replacing him with Simeon
900s Simeon
: Cyril and Methodius evangelized in Bulgaria
1100s Asen
and Peter : brothers freed Bulgaria from Ottoman
Empire
1908 - 1918 Ferdinand I : freed Bulgaria from Ottoman Empire; lost Second Balkan
War and WWI
1918 - 1943 Boris III : joined Germany in WWII but wouldn't fight USSR;
assassinated by
German agents
1954 - 1989 Todor Zhivkov :
Communist; ally of USSR; deposed by coup
1997 - 2002 Petar Stoyanov : former king Simeon II was elected prime minister in 2001
364 - 378 Valens
: fought Visigoths; lost Battle of Adrianople near Edirne
378 - 395 Theodosius I the Great : last to rule a united Roman Empire; orthodox
Christian;
persecuted Arians
527 - 565 Justinian I the Great : ruled with wife Theodora; completed codification of
Roman law;
General Belisarius crushed
unrest; defeated Vandals and Ostrogoths; built Hagia
Sophia
(Church of the Holy Wisdom);
Justinian Code
867 - 886 Basil I : founded Macedonian dynasty; ruled with Michael III whom
he murdered;
restored scholar Photius
976 - 1025 Basil II : conquered Armenai and
Bulgaria; named Bulgaroctonos (Slayer of Bulgars)
1081 - 1118 Alexius I Comnenus :
with Venetians fought Norman invaders under Robert
Guiscard; defeated Turkic
Pechenegs; regained Anatolia from Seljuk Turks from First Crusade;
dispute with Bohemond in
Crusade; daughter Anna Comnena wrote biography Alexiad
1261 - 1282 Michael VIII Palaeologus : restored Greek rule; took Constantinople from
Latins;
fought King Charles I of the
Two Sicilies; fomented plot by Sicilian Vespers
1449 - 1453 Constanine XI Paleaeologus : last Byzantine emperor; empire reduced to city of
Constantinople by Ottomans;
Muhammad II took the city (defended only by a few hundred
Greeks and Genoese)
1968 - 1969 Alexander Dubcek : protege of Antonin Novotny; initiated reforms of
1968 Prague
Spring but expelled from
Communist Party when Warsaw Pact forces invaded
1969 - 1987 Gustav Husak :
instituted "nomalization", reversing
Dubcek's reforms
1989 - 2003 Vaclav Havel : playwright (The Garden Party, The
Memorandum); founded Charter
77 Movement; led protests
that toppled Communism; elected Czechoslovakian president
1989 and Czech president
1993
1999 - 2004 Rudolf Schuster : president of Slovakia
1513 - 1523 Christian II : claimed Swedish throne under Union of Kalmar and
captured
Stockholm in 1523; executed
many Swedish nobles and became known as The Cruel; Gustav
Vasa rebelled and took
crown; uncle Frederick I elected Danish king; supported by HRE
Charles V but captured and
imprisoned for 27 years
1808 - 1839 Frederick VI : allied with Napoleon; lost Norway to Sweden in Treaty
of Kiel
1839 - 1848 Christian VIII : king of Norway in 1814 but defeated by Swedish
Charles XIII;
became Danish king 1839;
proclaimed Schleswig and Holstein united to Denmark
1848 - 1863 Frederick VII : last of Oldenburg dynasty
1863 - 1906 Christian IX : lost Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia and Austria under
Treaty of Vienna;
liberals gained control of Rigsdag; called Grandfather of Europe because daughters
married
English Edward VII and
Russian Alexander III and son became King George I of Greece
1912 - 1947 Christian X : broadened suffrage; sold Danish West Indies to US;
allowed Iceland
independence; joined League
of Nations; obtained North Schleswig from Germany; symbol of
resistance during German
occupation (possibly wore Star of David)
1947 - 1972 Frederick IX
1972 - ?
Margrethe II : first queen in over 550 years, allowed
by 1953 succession law
Estonia
1992-2001 Lennart Meri
Merovingians
481 - 511 Clovis I : united northern Salian and
southern Ripuarian Franks; capital at Soissons then
Paris; converted to
Christianity; defeated Alamanni Germans and Visigoths
715 - 741 Charles Martel : ruler of Austrasia; "the hammer"; son of
Pepin of Herstal; defeated
Muslims in 732 at Poitiers;
killed Abd-ar-Rahman; grandfather of Charlemagne
743 - 751 Childeric III : last Merovingian
Carolingians
751 - 768 Pepin the Short : crowned by Pope Stephen II; ceded Donation of Pepin;
the foundation
of the Papal States;
acquired Aquitaine; father of Charlemagne
768 - 814 Charlemagne
: born in Aachen; brother Crloman; crowned by
Pope Leo III in St. Peter's
Basilica on Christmas 800;
gathered scholars including Alcuin of York; Viking invasions
814 - 840 Louis I the Pious : son Pepin died; divided succession among sons
Charles II the Bald;
Louis II the German; and Lothair I in Treaty of Verdun 843
840 - 877 Charles I the Bald : mother Judith of Bavaria; received West Frankish
Kingdom in
Treaty of Verdun; Viking
raids; crowned by Pope John VIII
884 - 887 Charles II the Fat : Charles III of Holy Roman Empire; deposed by nephew Arnulf;
Frankish Empire dissolution
898 - 922 Charles III the Simple : ceded much of Normandy to Vikings; imprisoned in Peronne
986 - 987 Louis V : last Carolingian
Capetian
987 - 996 Hugh Capet : vassals elected him over Charles duke of Lorraine
996 - 1031 Robert II the Pious : educated by Gerbert (who
became Pope Sylvester II);
excommunicated by Pope
Gregory V for marriage to cousin Bertha of Burgundy
1031 - 1060 Henry I : helped then opposed William the Conquerer
1108 - 1137 Louis VI the Fat : fought Henry I of England and Henry V of Holy Roman
Empire;
helped peasants
1137 - 1180 Louis VII the Young : married Eleanor of Aquitaine; led Second Crusade
with
Conrad III of Germany;
marriage annulled and Eleanor married Henry II of England; lost
Aquitaine
1180 - 1223 Philip II Augustus : fought Richard I and John I of England; defeated
European
powers at Battle of Bouvines in 1214; fixed capital at Paris and improved city
1223 - 1226 Louis VIII : offered English crown by barons who opposed John but
defeated at
Lincoln; participated in
crusades against Albigenses (Cathars)
1226 - 1270 Saint Louis IX : went on Seventh Crusade but lost in Egypt in 1250;
signed Treaty of
Corbeil with Aragon in 1258; signed
Treaty of Paris with English Henry III; died on crusade
in Tunis
1285 - 1314 Philip IV the Fair : Pope Boniface VIII issued Unam
Sanctam bull against him in
1302 for making clergy pay
taxes; obtained election of Clement V as pope who moved to
Avignon beginning Babylonian
Captivity (until 1377); arrested Jacques de Molay of
Knights
Templar and burned many at
the stake
1317 - 1322 Philip V the Tall : frequently convoked the Estates General; fined Jews
1322 - 1328 Charles IV the Fair : helped sister Isabella dethrone husband Edward II of
England;
increased taxes; last
Capetian
Valois
1328 - 1350 Philip VI : crushed revolt in Flanders; began Hundred Years War;
lost at Sluis
(Netherlands 1340); Crecy
(France 1346); and Calais (France 1347); made truce with Edward III;
plague began in France in
1347
1350 - 1364 John II the Good : captured by Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers in
1356; tried to
raise ransom under Peace of Bretigny but was unsuccessful so was reimprisoned
1364 - 1380 Charles V the Wise : served as regent when John II was imprisoned; faced
Jacquerie
peasant revolt and
insurrection of Paris under Etienne Marcel; successful in war vs. England;
built Bastille; founded
first French royal library
1380 - 1422 Charles VI : became insane in 1392; civil wars between Armagnacs of
Orleans and
Burgundians; England won at
Agincourt in 1415; England imposed Treaty of Troyes giving
Henry V succession to French
throne
1422 - 1461 Charles VII : ruled southern France while England controlled
northern France;
regained English possessions
1461 - 1483 Louis XI : rebelled against Charles VII in 1440 but pardoned;
rival Charles the Bold
1483 - 1498 Charles VIII : gained Brittany by marrying Anne of Brittany;
occupied Naples in
1495 but defeated by Italy
1498 - 1515 Louis XII : rebelled against Charles VIII; known as Father of the
People; mild rule;
invaded Italy
1515 - 1547 Francis I : lost election for Holy Roman Emperor to Charles V of
Hapsburg; lost and
captured in Italy but
ransomed; sold judicial and financial offices
1547 - 1559 Henry II : married Catherine de Medicis;
persecuted Huguenots; fought Charles V;
won Calais and Gines from England; lost to Philip II of Spain at St.
Quentin Picardy; gave up
Italian possessions in
Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
1559 - 1560 Frances II : married Mary queen of Scots; dominated by Francois duke
of Guise and
Cardinal Charles of Lorraine
1560 - 1574 Charles IX : persuaded by mom Catherine de Medicis
to approve St. Bartholomew's
Day Massacre in 1572 vs.
Huguenots
1574 - 1589 Henry III : initially opposed but then accepted Huguenot Henry of
Navarre as
successor; last Valois
Bourbons
1589 - 1610 Henry IV : raised by Calvinist mm Jeanne d'Albret;
married Charles IX/s sister
Margaret of Valois;
converted to Catholicism but then converted back; issued Edict of Nantes
in 1610
1610 - 1643 Louis XIII : mom Marie de Medicis served
as regent until 1617; married Anne of
Austria (daughter of Spanish
Philip III); dominated by Cardinal Richelieu; entered Thirty Year's
War on side of Protestants
and Sweden
1643 - 1715 Louis XIV the
Sun King : longest reign in European history; mom Anne
of Austria
and Cardinal Jules Mazarin
ruled as regent; Fronde ("slingshot") rebellions from 1648 to 1653;
married Spanish cousin Marie
Therese; built palace at Versailles; revoked Edict of Nantes in 1685
leading to Camisard's
revolt; invaded Spanish Netherlands; claimed Palatinate in the Rhineland;
grandson Philip became
Spanish king leading to War of Spanish Succession
1715 - 1774 Louis XV : great-grandson of Louis XIV; Philippe II duc d'Orleans ruled as regent;
Prime Minister Andre Hercule; gained Lorraine in War of Polish Succession
(1733-1735); indecisive
War of Austrian Succession
(1740-1748); lost overseas possessions to British in Seven Years' War
(1756-1763)
1774 - 1792 Louis XVI : called Estates-General in 1788 for first time in 175
years; imprisoned in
Tuileries; Bastille stormed
July 14 1789; Legislative Assembly replaced Constituent
Assembly and was dominated
by Girondists and declared war on Austria; Montagnards
under
Georges Jacques Danton took
control of Paris; guillotined January 21 1793
1793 - 1795 Louis XVII : ruled in name only; many people later claimed to be
the "Lost Dauphin"
French
Revolution
1792 - 1795 National Convention : abolished monarchy; guillotined Louis XVI;
Vendee peasants
rebelled against
conscription; established Committee of Public Safety; Maximilien Robespierre,
leader of the Jacobins, led
Reign of Terror; crushed Royalist and Girondist (moderates, Roland,
Corday stabbed Marat)
insurrections; Robespierre beheaded Danton; Thermidoreans
beheaded
Robespierre
1795 - 1799 The Directory : five members; launched Napoleonic Wars; 1799
coup
1799 - 1804 The Consulate : General Napoleon Bonaparte assumed dictatorial
powers
First
Empire
1804 - 1815 Napoleon I Bonaparte : conquered Italy and Egypt as French general;
married
Josephine de Beauharnais in 1796;
gained dictatorial powers 1799; defeated Austria at Marengo
1800; settled quarrel with
Pope 1801; Charles Talleyrand was foreign minister; defeated Austria
and Russia at Austerlitz in 1805;
defeated Prussia at Jena Auerstadt in 1806; defeated
Russia at
Friedland; allied with Czar
Alexander I; seized Portugal; made brother Joseph king of Spain in 1808
causing Peninsular War; defeated
Austria at Wagram 1809; married Hapsburg Marie Louise in 1810;
abolished feudalism and
serfdom and granted bills of rights; invaded Russia in 1812 but retreated;
exiled to Elba in 1814; escaped
but lost at Waterloo 1815; exiled to St. Helena; French law still Code
Napoleon
Restoration
1815 - 1824 Louis XVIII : brother of Louis XVI; lived in exile until
Napoleon's exile; influenced
by liberal minister Elie Decazes; later dominated by reactionary Ultras
1824 - 1830 Charles X : a leader of the emigres during Revolution; headed
reactionary Ultras;
favoritism to Catholics led
to July 1830 revolution; exiled in Britain
1830 - 1848 Louis Philippe : joined Jacobins 1790; fled to Switzerland;
proclaimed king by
Chamber of Deputies in 1830;
deposed by Revolution of 1848 and fled to Britain
Second
Republic and Second Empire
1848 - 1870 Napoleon III :president 1848 - 1852; emperor 1852 - 1870; twice tried
to overthrow
Louis Philippe; elected
president 1848 but Royalist won legislative elections the next year; became
emperor following a coup;
began liberal reforms in 1860; rebuilt Paris under direction of Baron
Haussmann; lost
Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871
Third
Republic
1870 - 1871 Louis Jules Trouchu
1871 - 1873 Adolphe Thiers : wrote for National newspaper which led to
1830 revolution; crushed
Commune of Paris rebellion
in 1871
1879 - 1887 Jules Grevy
1887 - 1894 Marie Francois Sadi Carnot : assassinated by
anarchist
1932 - 1940 Albert Lebrun : last president of Third Republic
Vichy
Government
1940 - 1944 Henri Petain : WWI hero; at age 84 headed pro-German French
government
Fourth
Republic
1946 Georges Bidault :
led French Resistance; first president of Fourth Republic
1947 - 1953 Vincent Auriol
1953 - 1958 Rene Coty
Fifth
Republic
1958 - 1969 Charles De Gaulle : headed French national committee in exile in 1940;
provisional
premier 1945 - 1946;
appointed by National Assembly to draft new constitution in 1958; negotiated
Algerian independence;
joined EU; resolved widespread strikes in 1968
1969 - 1974 Georges Pompidou : supported Britain's entry into EU
1974 - 1981 Valery Giscard d'Estaing : conservative like De Gaulle and Pompidou
1981 - 1995 Francois Mitterrand : first Socialist President; nationalized
industries; reversed many
policies by 1982; died of
prostate cancer
1995 - 2007 Jacques Chirac : Gaullist; Paris mayor 1977 - 1995; his RPR and
Giscard's Union for
French Democracy gained
majority in National Assembly in 1986 and he was appointed prime minister
for domestic affairs in 1986
under "cohabitation" arrangement; privatized businesses
2007
- 2012 Nicolas Sarkozy : Union for a Popular Movement
party; married Carla Bruni
2012
- 2017 Francois Hollande : Socialist; 2015 attacks in
Paris including Bataclan Theater
2017
- ? Emmanuel Macron
Georgia
1992-2003 Eduard Shevardnadze : survived coup and two assassination attempts
Goths
300s Ermanaric : established
kingdom from Baltic to Black Sea
475 - 493 Odoacer
: led uprising of Germanic troops in the Roman army against Romulus
Augustulus, gaining control of the
empire; made capital at Ravenna; defeated and killed by
Ostrogoth Theodoric
Visigoths
395 - 410 Alaric I : invaded Greece and Italy; pillaged Rome in 410
410 - 415 Ataulf :
brother of Alaric I; invaded Spain
415 - 418 Wallia :
conquered Spain and southern Gaul; made capital at Toulouse
418 - 451 Theodoric I : died fighting the Huns with Rome at Chalons
420 - 484 Euric :
king of the Spanish Visigoths
484 - 507 Alaric II : issued law code Breviary of Alaric; killed by Clovis I
at Vouille
Ostrogoths
474 - 526 Theodoric
: fought Byzantine ruler Zeno; invaded Italy and slew Odoacer and
controlled Western Roman
Empire
Vandals
428 - 477 Gaiseric
: defeated Roman general Bonifacus in Africa;
captured Carthage and made it
his capital; pillaged Rome
after Valentinian III's death in 455
Second
Reich
1861 - 1888 William I : chief minister Otto von Bismarck and he unified Germany
under Prussia;
fought Franco-Prussian War
1888 - 1888 Frederick III : led Prussians against Austria at Sadowa
in Seven Weeks War 1866
1888 - 1918 William II : dismissed Otto von Bismarck; formed Triple Alliance
with Italy and
Austria; fought World War I;
abdicated to Netherlands
Weimer
Republic
1919 - 1925 Friedrich Ebert : last German chancellor; headed new republic;
suppressed leftist
Spartacists; elected
president under Weimer constitution; France occupied Ruhr
1925 - 1934 Paul von Hindenburg : won at Tannenberg with Ludendorff; established
system of
trenches; elected president
in 1925 and in 1932 over Hitler whom he appointed chancellor
1934 - 1945 Adolf Hitler : dictator; fought World War II; wrote Menin Kampf; initiated Holocost;
Gestapo secret police; 1936
sent troops to Rhineland; supported Nationalist Franco; took
Austria 1938; Czechoslovakia
1939; committed suicide 1945
West
Germany
1949 - 1963 Konrad Adenauer : mayor of Cologne; founded Christian Democratic
Union; joined
NATO and EU
1963 - 1966 Ludwig Erhard : led German economic miracle; member of CDU
1966 - 1969 Kurt Georg Kiesinger : formed grand coalition of CDU with Social
Democrats
1969 - 1974 Willy Brandt : mayor West Berlin 1957-66; Social Democrat; won
1971 Nobel
1974 - 1982 Helmut Schmidt : Social Democrat; he and D'Estaing led European
Community
1982 - 1990 Helmut Kohl : reunified Germany October 1990; elected to four terms
as chancellor
East
Germany
1946 - 1971 Walter Ulbricht : Social Unity Party
1971 - 1989 Erich Honecker :
as head of security forces built Berlin Wall 1961; resisted political reforms
1989 - 1990 Egon Krenz
Reunited
Germany
1990 - 1998 Helmut Kohl : West German chancellor elected chancellor of reunited
Germany
1998 - 2005 Gerhard Schroder : Social Democratic Party; coalition with Green
Parties; closed
nuclear power plants
2005
- ? Angela Merkel; Christian Democratic Union;
doctorate in physical chemistry; first female
Chancellor
of Germany; led EU management of financial crisis
Saxons
and Danes
829 - 839 Egbert
: king of Wessex; given title of Bretwalda
("ruler of the British"); defeated Danes
and Welsh at Hingston Down in Cornwall
839 - 858 Ethelwulf :
son of Egbert
866 - 871 Ethelred I : imposed Danegeld tax; fought Danes
871 - 899 Alfred the Great : captured London 886; began court school and invited
scholars
including Welsh Asser and
Irish John Scotus Erigena; promulgated laws which did not
distinguish Welsh and
English
899 - 924 Edward the Elder : defeated Danes by 918; annexed London and Oxford
924 - 940 Athelstan the Glorious : defeated Welsh, Scottish, and Danish at Brunanburh in 937;
styled self as Rex totius Britanniae; translated Bible
940 - 946 Edmund I : Viking Olaf Godfreyson seized Northumbria but Edmund later expelled
them; restricted blood
feuds; stabbed by robber
959 - 975 Edgar the Peaceful : made St. Dunstan archbishop of Canterbury;
reformer
975 - 978 Edward the Martyr : assassinated by stepmom Elfrida;
miracles occurred at his tomb
978 - 1016 Ethelred II the Unready : made treaty with Richard II of Normandy and
married
Richard's sister Emma; Sweyn I the Forkbeard of Denmark invaded England in 1013;
called unready because of
his bad counsel
1016 - 1035 Canute II the Great : son of Sweyn I; stayed in
England after becoming Danish king;
exiled Olaf II of Norway
1035 - 1040 Harold I Harefoot :
witenagemot royal council divided England between Harold and
Hardecanute but Hardecanute
stayed in Denmark
1040 - 1042 Hardecanute : last Danish king of England; left control of
England to mom and
Godwin earl of Wessex
1042 - 1066 Edward the Confessor : married Godwin's daughter Edith; revolt against
Tostig earl
of Northumbria;
founded Westminster Abbey
1066 Harold II : last Saxon king of England; defeated Tostig and
Norwegian Harold III but lost to
William Duke of Normandy at
Hastings October 14 1066
Normandy
1066 - 1087 William I the Conqueror : son of Robert I of Normandy; Pope Alexander II
sanctioned his invasion of
England; landed at Pevensey and won at Hastings 1066; crowned
at Westminster Abbey;
invaded Malcolm III MacDuncan's Scotland 1072; fell
off horse at
Mantes in campaign against
French Philip I
1087 - 1100 William II Rufus : defeated uncle Odo who
wanted to replace him with Robert; thrice
invaded Normandy against
brother Robert II; killed on hunting trip
1100 - 1135 Henry I Beauclerc :
defeated brother Robert II Duke of Normandy at Tinchebray
Blois
1135 - 1154 Stephen : nephew of Henry I; usurped throne from cousin
Matilda
Plantagenet
1154 - 1189 Henry II : son of Matilda; defeated Stephen of Blois; four of his
knights murdered
Thomas a Becket, but was
forced to do penance; replaced trial by ordeal with modern courts;
married Eleanor of Aquitaine
1189 - 1199 Richard I the
Lion-Hearted : given Aquitaine by mom Eleanor; went on
failed Third
Crusade with French Philip
II; fought Saladin of Egypt and Syria; captured by HRE Henry IV
and ransomed; made peace
with brother John
1199 - 1216 John Lackland :
defeated by French Philip II in 1214; raised taxes for wars; forced by
barons to sign Magna Carta
making him subject to the law
1216 - 1272 Henry III : forced to accept Provisions of Oxford to share power
with barons in 1258;
son Edward defeated barons
at Evesham
1272 - 1307 Edward I : invaded Scotland in 1296; failed to crush William
Wallace revolt in 1298;
executed Wallace in 1305; Robert
Bruce became Scottish king
1307 - 1327 Edward II : first heir known as Prince of Wales; in 1311 barons led
by Thomas Earl
of Lancaster established
committee of lords called lords ordainers and
executed Edward's
friend Piers Gaveston; lost to Scottish Robert Bruce in 1214; Edward and
Hugh le Despenser
defeated Lancaster;
imprisoned by barons allied with wife Isabella; murdered by captors
1327 - 1377 Edward III : arrested mom Isabella and hanged her lover Roger de
Mortimer; defeated
Scots; began Hundred Years'
War in 1337; gained Aquitaine in Peace of Calais but lost most
of his French possessions in
1375 truce
1377 - 1399 Richard II : asserted authority over Parliament with help of uncle
John of Gaunt duke
of Lancaster; exiled but
later captured by John of Gaunt's son Henry Blingbroke duke of
Hereford; confined in Pontefract Castle
Lancaster
1399 - 1413 Henry IV Bolingbroke : exiled by cousin Richard but raised an army
and defeated
him; suppressed rebellions
by nobles, Scots, and Welsh; persecuted Lollards, followers of
Wycliffe
1413 - 1422 Henry V : defeated French at Agincourt 1415; became heir to French
Charles VI and
married his daughter
Catherine of Valois; brother Thomas duke of Clarence lost Normandy
to French
1422 - 1471 Henry VI : nobles tried to replace him with Richard duke of York
in War of Roses;
Richard killed in 1460 but
his son Edward imprisoned Henry in Tower of London
1461 - 1483 Edward IV : headed house of York; won Battle of Mortimer's Cross in
1461;
Lancastrians and Richard
Neville earl of Warwick drove him into exile in 1470 but returned
in 1471
1483 Edward V : power struggle between uncles Richard duke of Gloucester
and Anthony
Woodville 2nd Earl Rivers
when dad Edward IV died; confined Tower of London
1483 - 1485 Richard III : murdered nephews Edward and Richard; slain at Bosworth
Field
Tudor
1485 - 1509 Henry VII : head of Lancaster house; defeated Richard III at
Bosworth Field 1485;
married Yorkist heiress
Elizabeth to unite houses and end War of Roses
1509 - 1547 Henry VIII : joined Holy League against France; faced riots over
heavy taxes in 1525;
wives: Catherine of Aragon
(Mary), Anne Boleyn (Elizabeth), Jane Seymour (Edward),
Anne of Cleves, Catherine
Howard, Catherine Parr; established Church of England when
pope wouldn't annul marriage
to Catherine of Aragon; Thomas Cranmer annulled marriage
1547 - 1553 Edward VI : uncle Edward Seymour 1st Earl of Hertford was Lord
Protector and
Duke of Somerset; John
Dudley executed Seymour
1553 - 1558 Mary I Tudor : deposed Lady Jane Grey; married Spanish Philip II;
lost Calais;
reestablished authority of
pope
1558 - 1603 Elizabeth I : imprisoned by Mary until she converted to Catholicism;
reverted to
Protestantism when Mary
died; established Church of England in Elizabethan Compromise;
executed Catholic cousin
Mary Queen of Scots; defeated Spanish Armada in 1588; Robert
Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex
lost to Irish and then led failed revolt against Elizabeth
Stuart
1603 - 1625 James I : only son of Mary Queen of Scots; believed in divine
right of kings;
authorized KJV of Bible;
Gunpowder Plot led by Robert Catesby and Guy Fawkes foiled
November 5
1605
1625 - 1649 Charles I : born in Dunfermline; accepted
Petition of Right demanding reforms in
exchange for funds for
Thirty Years' War but dismissed Parliament; called Short Parliament
to quell Presbyterian Scots
riots; called Long Parliament which refused funding to put down
Irish revolt; tried to
arrest members of Parliament; civil war between Roundheads and Cavaliers;
Oliver Cromwell led
Independents in Parliament; Rump Parliament executed Charles
Commonwealth
1653 - 1658 Oliver Cromwell : won Battle of Naseby against Cavaliers in English
Revolution;
became Lord Protector of the
Commonwealth; tolerated Puritans
1658 - 1659 Richard Cromwell : resigned May 25 1659
Stuart
Restored
1660 - 1685 Charles II : routed by Cromwell in 1651 but returned in 1660,
granting amnesty to
opponents; acquired New
Netherlands in unpopular Dutch War of 1672
1685 - 1689 James II : brother of Charles II; converted to Catholicism;
deposed by Glorious
Revolution; lost at Battle
of the Boyne in Ireland in 1690; fled to France
1689 - 1702 William III and
Mary II : Netherlands stadtholder during war with
French Louis XIV;
married Mary daughter of
James II; joined Grand Alliance; opposed Parliament's domestic
reforms
1702 - 1714 Anne : War of Spanish Succession 1701 - 1714; united England
and Scotland 1707
Hanover
1714 - 1727 George I : elector of Hannover; succeeded Queen Anne under Act of
Settlement;
never learned English;
defeated attempt to replace him with James II's son
1727 - 1760 George II : subordinated English interests to Hannover in War of
Austrian Succession
1740 - 1748; last monarch to
fight in battle, at Battle of Dettingen in Bavaria
1760 - 1820 George III : appointed Frederick North 2nd Earl of Gilford prime
minister 1770 -
1782; lost American
colonies; appointed William Pitt prime minister; contracted dementia
and son acted as regent from
1811
1820 - 1830 George IV : extravagant; married cousin Caroline of Brunswick, whom
the public
supported when he tried to
divorce her
1830 - 1837 William IV : liaison with Irish actress Dorothea Jordan and had 10
kids; married
German princess Adelaide of
Saxe-Meiningen; Reform Bill of 1832 passed; abolished colonial
slavery; reformed poor laws;
Municipal Reform Act
1837 - 1901 Victoria : longest English reign; appointed William Lamb
prime minister; married
cousin Albert of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; supported Conservative Party leader Benjamin Disraeli;
became empress of India in
1876; opposed William Gladstone; won Boer War 1899 - 1902
Saxe-Coburg
and Gotha
1901 - 1910 Edward VII : signed Entente Cordiale in 1904 with France and a pact
with Russia in
1907; promoted international
amity and known as Edward the Peacemaker
Windsor
1910 - 1936 George V : led Britain during WWI
1936 Edward VIII : abdicated to marry American Mrs. Wallis Warfield
Simpson; given title Duke
of Windsor
1936 - 1952 George VI : married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon; visited many fronts
during WWII;
visited Canada, US, and
South Africa; India and Pakistan gained independence 1947
1952 - ?
Elizabeth II : married Prince Philip duke of
Edinburgh; kids Charles, Anne, Andrew, and
Edward; about 40 colonies
granted independence; joined EU; nationalized many industries
Prime
Ministers
1721 - 1742 Robert Walpole : Whig; supported peace and low taxes; considered
first prime
minister but title not used
until later
1766 - 1768 William Pitt : defeated France in Seven Years' War 1756-1763; allied
with Thomas
Pelham-Holles
duke of Newcastle; distrusted by George III
1770 - 1782 Frederick North : carried out George III's wishes to tax America even
though he
thought it unwise; resigned
1782 after surrender to America; allied with Charles James Fox and
opposed William Pitt the
Younger
1783 - 1801 and 1804 - 1806 : William Pitt the Younger : negotiated trade treaty
with France;
established colony in
Australia; 1791 Canada Act established representative institutions for
English and French; wanted to
incorporate Ireland into UK; opposed French expansion;
resigned over opposition to
equal rights for Catholics
1834 - 1835 and 1841 - 1846 : Robert Peel : founded Conservative Party with 1834
Tamworth
Mainfesto; repealed Corn Laws which
limited grain imports; London police known as "Bobbies"
because of his Metropolitan
Police Act; faced Irish potato famine; known as "Orange Peel" for
opposition to Catholics but
later passed Catholic Emancipation
1868 and 1874 - 1880
Benjamin Disraeli : Sephardic Jew converted to
Christianity; joined
Conservative Party; opposed
Peel's repeal of Corn Laws; purchased Suez Canal; claimed "peace
with honor" after
Berlin Conference on Eastern Question of Ottoman Empire; proclaimed Victoria
Empress of India
1868 - 1874, 1880 - 1885,
1886, and 1892 - 1994 William Gladstone : first joined
Tory (renamed
Conservative) Party then
changed to Liberal Party in 1859; established national elementary
education; judicial, civil,
and military reforms; disestablished Anglican church in Ireland; opposed
annexation of South Africa;
Reform Act of 1884 allowed rural people to vote; crusaded for Irish
home rule
1916 - 1922 David Lloyd George : instituted social reforms for workers; participated
in Treaty of
Versailles; introduced Home
Rule Bill for Ireland which alienated Conservatives from his coalition
1923 - 1924, 1924 - 1929,
and 1935 - 1937 Stanley Baldwin : joined Conservative
Party; proposed
protective tariff; curbed
trade unions; first premier to visit overseas dominion (Canada)
1937 - 1940 Neville Chamberlain : appeasement policy towards Germany; signed
Munich Pact
September 1938
1940 - 1945 and 1951 - 1955
Winston Churchill : as admiral lost Gallipoli campaign
in WWI; led
Britain in WWII; wrote A
History of the English-Speaking Peoples and won literature
Nobel 1953
1945 - 1951 Clement Attlee : first Labour prime
minister; nationalized iron, steel, railroads, coal,
and health care
1955 - 1957 Anthony Eden : resigned after attacking Egypt which had seized the
Suez Canal 1956
1957 - 1963 Harold Macmillan : Conservative leader; visited Khrushchev in
Moscow in 1959;
failed to admit Britain to
EEC; resigned after personal scandal of War Secretary John
Profumo
1964 - 1970 and 1974 - 1976
Harold Wilson : Labour Party
leader
1970 - 1974 Edward Heath : Conservative leader; joined EC
1976 - 1979 James Callaghan : Labour leader; allied
with Liberals and Scottish Nationalist Party
1979 - 1990 Margaret Thatcher : first woman PM; Conservative leader; defeated
Argentina in
Falkland Islands 1982;
opposed full economic integration of Britain in Europe
1990 - 1997 John Major : Conservative leader; established dialogue with Irish
Republican Army
1997 - 2007 Tony Blair : Labour leader; youngest PM
in 200 years; med with Sinn Fein leader Gerry
Adams; allowed Scottish
parliament and Welsh assembly
2007
- 2010 Gordon Brown : Labour
2010
- 2016 David Cameron : Conservative; resigned after
referendum leaving EU (Brexit) passed
2016
- ? Theresa May :
Conservative
Athens
c. 632 BC Cylon :
dictator
c. 621 BC Draco
: issued harsh legal code
c. 594 BC Solon
: elected archon; poet; replaced Aeropagus
with a popular assembly
c. 560 BC Pisistratus
: dictator
c. 509 BC Cleisthenes
: restored democracy; instituted ostracism
461 - 431 BC Pericles : made Athens supreme in the Delian League; built
Parthenon; deposed
as the Peloponnesian War
began
404 - 403 BC Thirty Tyrants : puppet government set up by Sparta after winning
Peloponnesian
War; soon deposed and
democracy restored
Sparta
600s BC Lycurgus
: semimythical lawgiver
490 - 480 BC Leonidas I : fought Xerxes I (Persia) at mountain pass at Thermopylae
Macedonia
359 - 336 BC Philip II : learned military skills as captive in Thebes; renamed Crenides Philippi;
Demosthenes warned Athens
about him; became head of Amphictyonic League;
defeated Athens and Thebes
at Chaeronea; assassinated; father of Alexander III
336 - 323 BC Alexander III
the Great : born in Pella; tutored by Aristotle;
defeated Thebes
rebellion; defeated Darius
III of Persia at Issus and Gaugamela; built Alexandria in
Egypt; cut Gordian knot; at
his death empire was divided among "successor kings"
(diadochi)
Antigonus I (Greece), Seleucus
(Babylonia), and Ptolemy I (Egypt)
306 - 301 BC Antigonus I Cyclops : controlled
much of Asia Minor; almost reunified
Alexander's empire but was
killed by Lysimachus of Thrace and Seleucus I at Ipsus
Modern
Greece
1827 - 1831 King Ioannis Kapodistrias : came to power after Greece won independence from
the Ottomans at Navarino; assassinated
1832 - 1862 King Otto I : Bavarian Catholic; made capital at Athens; powers
reduced by 1843
coup
1863 - 1913 King George I : Danish; established House of Gluksburg
in Greece; with Prime
Minister Venizelos defeated
Turkey in First Balkan War; assassinated
1913 - 1917, 1920 - 1922
King Constantine I : favored Germany in WWI but Prime
Minister
Venizelos favored Allies;
forced to abdicate in favor of son Alexander; regained
throne when son died
1922 - 1923, 1935 - 1941,
1946 - 1947 King George II : lost land to Turkey in
Treaty of
Lausanne; monarchy abolished
in 1922 but twice restored
1936 - 1941 Dictator Ionnais Metaxas : restored George
II; joined Allies in WWII
1947 - 1964 King Paul I : US, following Truman Doctrine, aided anti-Communist
forces in civil
war
1955 - 1964 Prime Minister
Konstantinos Karamanlis : leader of National Radical
Union;
conflict in Cyprus
1964 - 1973 King Constantine
II : deposed by military, abolishing monarchy and
establishing
republic
1964 - 1965 Prime Minister Georgies Papandreou : leader of Central
Union Party; had led
Greek government-in-exile
during WWII
1981 - 1989, 1993 - 1996
Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou : socialist
1996 - 2004 Prime Minister
Costas Simitis
Carolingian
Dynasty
800 - 814 Charlemagne
: king of Franks; born in Aachen; son of Pepin the Short; grandson of
Charles Martel; crowned by
Pope Leo III in St. Peter's Basilica Christmas 800; gathered
scholars including Alcuin of
York; 250 counts administered empire; Viking invasions began
814 - 840 Louis I the Pious : divided empire among sons Lothair
I, Louis II the German and
Charles II the Bald in
Treaty of Verdun after Pepin of Aquitaine died
843 - 876 Louis II the
German
876 - 887 Charles the Fat : Franklish Empire dissolved
when he was deposed by Arnulf
911 - 918 Conrad I : last Carolingian
Saxon
Dynasty (First Reich)
919 - 936 Henry I the Fowler : first Saxon German king; defeated Magyars, Wends,
and Danes
936 - 973 Otto I the Great : married Adelaide of Lombardy and became ruler of northern
Italy;
deposed Pope John XII,
replaced by Leo VIII
973 - 983 Otto II : wife Theophano of Byzantine;
captured Lorraine but returned it; defeated by
Greeks at Crotona in 982
1002 - 1024 Henry II the Saint : last Saxon king of Germany; crowned by Pope Benedict
VIII;
fought three campaigns in
Italy; fought Kig Boleslaw I of Poland
Salian Dynasty
1024 - 1039 Conrad II : king of Lombards; inherited
Burgundy from Rudolf III
1039 - 1056 Henry III the Black : appointed Pope Clement II and three more Germans
1056 - 1106 Henry IV : won civil war against Rudolf Duke of Swabia; deposed Pope
Gregory VII,
replaced by Clement III
1106 - 1125 Henry V : last Salian; fought Pope
Paschal II over lay investiture
House
of Hohenstaufen
1138 - 1152 Conrad III : first Hohenstaufen; king of Italy; leader in Second
Crusade
1152 - 1190 Frederick I Barbarossa : defeated by Lombard League at Legnano; led Third Crusade
in 1189; drowned in Calycadnus River
1197 - 1208 Philip of Swabia : murdered in 1208
1198 - 1215 Otto IV of Brunswick : grandson of Henry II of England; excommunicated
by Pope
Innocent III; defeated by
France at Bouvines
1215 - 1250 Frederick II : led Fifth Crusade; fought Lombards
1250 - 1254 Conrad IV : deposed by Pope Innocent IV; fought Henry Raspe and William of
Holland for German crown
Great
Interregnum (1254 - 1273)
Hapsburg
1273 - 1291 Rudolf I of Habsburg : first Hapsburg; fought Alfonso X of Castile and Ottokar II of
Bohemia for German crown,
ending Great Interregnum
1298 - 1308 Albert I : lost war to Thuringia; murdered by nephew John of Swabia
1314 - 1347 Louis IV the Bavarian : fought Frederick II the Fair and Leopold I for
crown;
opposed by Pope John XXII
1347 - 1378 Charles IV of Luxemburg : issued Golden Bull, establishing method of
imperial
election
1378 - 1400 Wenceslas : made Prague capital; supported John Huss but
later fought his followers
in Hussite Wars
1411 - 1437 Sigismund : wife Queen Mary of Hungary; defeated by Ottoman Bayazid I at
Nicopolis in Bulgaria; convoked
Council of Constance; executed John Huss and fought
Hussite Wars
1493 - 1519 Maximillian I : defeated Louis XI of France for Burgundy; won thrones of
Hungary
and Bohemia for Hapsburgs;
son Philip I married Joanna the Mad, establishing Hapsburgs
in Spain
1519 - 1556 Charles V : 1552 Peace of Passau allowed Lutherans to exercise
religion, reaffirmed
by 1555 Peace of Augsburg;
fought France and Ottomans; ruled as Charles I of Spain
1576 - 1612 Rudolph II : patron of Brahe and Kepler; gave religious liberties to
Bohemians
1619 - 1637 Ferdinand II : Bohemian rebels threw two of his ministers out a window
(Defenestration of Prague)
to start Thirty Years War
1637 - 1657 Ferdinand III : signed Peace of Westphalia, allowing rulers of each
region to choose
religion
1711 - 1740 Charles VI : lost War of the Polish Succession
1740 - 1780 Maria Theresa : ruled with Francis I; lost Silesia in War of the
Austrian Succession;
joined France and Russia
against Prussia in Seven Year's War; acquired Galicia from
Poland
1780 - 1790 Joseph II : ruled in accordance with principles of the
Enlightenment; freed serfs
1790 - 1792 Leopold II
1792 - 1835 Francis II : last Holy Roman emperor; dissolved empire in 1806; gave
Klemens von
Metternich control of
foreign affairs; daughter Marie Louise married Napoleon; fought
Napoleonic Wars; regained
most lost land at Congress of Vienna
997 - 1038 Stephen I : founded Arpad dynasty; given title "Apostolic
Majesty", adopted by future
Hungarian sovereigns, by
Pope Sylvester II
1342 - 1882 Louis I the Great : king of Hungary and Poland; fought three wars with
Venice
1515 - 1526 Louis II : fought Ottoman Suleiman; invaded by Turks
1849 - 1849 Lajos Kossuth : briefly established independent Hungarian
Republic, defeated by
Austrians; gave speeches in
US and Britain
1953 - 1955, 1956 Imre Nagy : allowed peasants to
leave collective farms; promised free
elections; suppressed by
Soviets; returned to power briefly in 1956 Hungarian Revolution;
executed
1956-1988 Janos Kadar : restored Soviet-style Communism
2000 - 2005 Ferenc Madl
1959 - 1973 Eamon De Valera : math teacher;
led Sinn Fein rebels in 1916 Easter Rebellion; fled
to US; nationalist and
isolationist
1990 - 1997 Mary Robinson : nominated by Irish Labour
Party; first woman president; won when
Brian Lenihan
was involved in scandal; first president not in Fianna Fail or Fine Gael
parties;
resigned to become UN High
Commissioner for Human Rights
1997 - 2011 Mary McAleese
Syracuse
485 - ?
BC Gelon; tyrant of Gela; defeated Carthage at Himera
? - 466 BC Hiero I : patron of the arts;
supported Pindar; ousted in favor of democracy
317 - ?
BC Agathocles : restored despotic government; praised
in The Prince
Florence
1434 - 1464 Cosimo de' Medici : established
Medici dominance in Florence; his line included
Lorenzo and Popes Leo X and
Clement VII; family ruled Florence until 1737
1464 - 1492 Lorenzo de'
Medici the Magnificent : directed Medici bank and was
de facto ruler of
Florentine republic;
patronized artists including Michelangelo and Sandro Botticelli
1494 - 1497 Girolamo Savonarola : Dominican friar; displaced Medicis
with Charles VIII's
(France) aid; hanged as a
heretic
Milan
1262 - 1447 Visconti family;
patrons of Petrarch; Ottone defeated Della Torre at Desio; last ruler
was Filipepo
Maria
1450 - 1535 Sforza family; patrons
of Bramante and da Vinci
Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies
1266 - 1285 Charles I : son of Louis VIII, went on Sixth Crusade with Louis IX;
pope gave him
Two Sicilies
for helping fight Ghibellines; killed King Manfred; defeated revolt by Conradin
(last Hohenstaufen); went on
failed Seventh Crusade; lost to Pedro III of Aragon
1816 - 1825 Ferdinand I : also king of Naples as Ferdinand IV; led Naples against
Napoleon
1830 - 1859 Fredinand II Bomba : fought insurrection in 1848; bombarded rebellious cities
1859 - 1861 Francis II : last Bourbon ruler of Naples and Sicily; invaded by
Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860
Unification
of Italy
1815 - 1861 Unification : Congress of Vienna established Italy as
patchwork of kingdoms such as
Naples and Sicily, Papal
States, and Sardinia; Sardinian Prime Minister Camillo Count di Cavour,
Giuseppe Mazzini, and
Giuseppe Garibaldi led unification; Garibaldi expelled Francis II from
Naples in 1860
Savoy
1861 - 1878 Victor Emmanuel II : Sardinian king proclaimed king of united Italy at Turin
in 1861;
won Venetia by allying with
Prussia in Austro-Prussian War 1866; General Raffaele took
Papal States
1878 - 1900 Humbert I : signed Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany
in 1882;
colonial expansion in Africa
but lost to Ethiopia at Adwa; assassinated by anarchist at Monza
1900 - 1946 Victor Emmanuel III : served in army during WWI; accepted Fascist Benito
Mussolini regime in 1922;
recognized sovereignty of Vatican in Lateran Treaty 1929; abdicated
after WWII
1946 Humbert II
Fascist
Dictator
1922 - 1943 Benito Mussolini : formed government in 1922; conquered Ethiopia
and Albania;
aided Francisco Franco in
Spanish Civil War; dismissed by Victor Emmanuel III in 1943 but
escued by Germans; set up puppet state
in northern Italy; shot by Italians in 1945
Prime
Ministers
1945 - 1953 Alcide De Gasperi : founded Christian Democratic Party; joined NATO
1994 - 1995, 2001 - 2006,
2008 - 2011 Silvio Berlusconi : owner of Mediaset and AC Milan football club;
Leader
of Forza Italia and The People of Freedom parties; convicted of tax fraud
Knights Templar (Poor
Knights of Christ) - founded by Hugh de Payens; rules
established by Bernard of
Clairvaux; moved to Cyprus;
established banking system; persecuted by Pope Clement V and
French King Philip IV
Knights Hospitalers
(Knights of St. John of Jerusalem) - founded by Gerard; rules established by
Saint
Augustine; moved to Rhodes
and later to Malta; conquered by Napoleon in 1798
Teutonic Knights (Teutonic
Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem) - founded by Germans; fought
Slavs and controlled
Prussia; tried to convert Eastern Europe to Christianity; defeated by Poland
at Tannenberg in 1410
Luxembourg
2000-? Grand Duke Henri
Orange-Nassau
1815 - 1840 William I : son of William V of Orange, last stadtholder of United
Netherlands; as
general lost to France in
War of the First Coalition 1793 - 1795; first king of Belgium-Netherlands
created by Treaty of Paris;
Belgium seceded 1830
1840 - 1849 William II : served under General Wellesley duke of Wellington in
Napoleonic Wars;
commanded Dutch and Belgians
at Waterloo; liberalized constitution in 1848
1849 - 1890 William III : wanted to sell Luxembourg to France but Prussia made
in be
independent at London
conference; reign of peace
1890 - 1948 Wilhelmina : mom Emma was regent; Luxembourg terminated
union with
Netherlands because it
refused a woman ruler; married Henry duek of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin;
neutral in WWI; set up
government-in-exile in England during WWII
1948 - 1980 Juliana
1980 - 2013 Beatrix : earned doctorate in law from University of Leiden;
marriage to West German
Claus von Amsberg caused controversy; son Willem Alexander first male
heir in four generations
2013
- ? Willem-Alexander
885 - 933 Harold I the Fairheaded :
first to rule all Norway; won Battle of Hafrsfjord; many fled
and launched Viking raids;
allied with English Athelstan
935 - 961 Hakon I the Good : dethroned half brother Eric Bloodaxe;
attempted to introduce
Christianity
968 - 1000 Olaf I : raided England with Danish Sweyn
I Forkbeard; converted to Christianity;
defeated rebellion under
pagan Earl Hakon; made Nidaros
capital; won Battle of Svold in 1000
against Sweyn
I, Swedish Olaf, and sons of Hakon but died
1015 - 1028 St. Olaf II : converted to Christianity by English Ethelred II;
killed at Battle of
Stiklestad; canonized in 1164
1066 - 1093 Olaf III the Quiet : father Harold III Hard Ruler killed at Battle of
Stamford Bridge;
ruled for three years with
brother Magnus II Barefoot
1217 - 1263 Hakon IV the Old : defeated rival
Earl Skule; acquired Greenland in 1261 and Iceland
in 1262; murdered historian
Snorri Sturluson
1450 - 1814 Ruled by Denmark
1814 - 1905 Ruled by Sweden
1905 - 1957 Hakon VII : chosen king by Storting parliament; headed WWII government-in-exile
1957 - 1991 Olaf V : commander of Norwegian armed forces 1944-1945
1991 -? Harald V
Piast Dynasty
962 - 992 Mieszko :
converted Poland to Christianity
992 - 1025 Boleslaw I : defeated Henry II (HRE); crowned by pope in 1025
1102 - 1138 Boleslaw III : defended Silesia against Henry V (HRE); conquered
Pomerania; at his
death kingdom was divided among
sons and deteriorated
1320 - 1333 Wladyslaw I : defeated Teutonic Knights; reunited kingdom
1333 - 1370 Kazimierz III
the Great : conquered Galicia; enlightened; founded
university
Jagiellonian
Dyansty
1386 - 1434 Wladyslaw II Jagiello :
grand duke of Lithuania; converted Lithuania to Roman
Catholicism; defeated
Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg in 1410
1447 - 1492 Kazimierz IV : won land from Teutonic Knights in Treaty of Torun
1469 - 1472 Zygmunt II Augustus : joined
Poland and Lithuania in the Commonwealth; dynasty
ended at his death and
nobles and the Sejm parliament ruled
Period
of Decline
1764 - 1795 Stanislaw II Augustus : paramour of Catherine the Great (Russia); last
king;
Kosciusko, who had aided US
in American Revolution, rebelled against Russians but was
defeated by Suvorov; Poland
was partitioned three times among Austria, Prussia, and Russia
Modern
Poland
1918 - 1922, 1926 - 1935 Jozef Pilsudski : won Polish
independence after Germany lost WWI;
defeated Soviet invasion in
Russo-Polish War
1956 - 1970 Wladyslaw Gomulka : expelled from Communist party in 1949 but
reinstated after
Stalin's death
1970 - 1980 Edward Gierek :
ousted after Solidarity strikes
1981 - 1990 Wojciech Jaruzelski : outlawed Solidarity but legalized it again in 1988 after
Gorbachev instituted
glasnost
1990 - 1995 Lech Walesa : led strike in 1980 at Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk;
formed Solidarity
trade federation; won 1983
Nobel Peace Prize; elected president 1990
1995 - 2005 Aleksander Kwasniewski : formed Democratic Left Alliance with
ex-Communists
? - 64 St. Peter : one of twelve disciples, denied knowing Jesus on
night of trial; first to see risen
Jesus; called the rock on
which church was founded; martyred in Rome
64 - 76 St. Linus : second pope; possibly martyred
189 - 199 St. Victor I : born in Africa; first Latin pope; threatened
excommunication for
Quartodecimans, who celebrated Easter on
Nisan 14; condemned Theodotus and Dynamic
Monarchianism, which said
Jesus was human until Baptism; replaced Greek with Latin as
official language
440 - 461 St. Leo I the Great : born in Tuscany; persuaded Attila the Hun not to
sack Rome;
Council of Chalcedon in 451
endorsed Leo's views, said "Peter has spoken through Leo"
492 - 496 St. Gelasius I : cultivated relations with Arian Ostrogothic King
Theodoric; predecessor
Felix III had excommunicated
patriarch of Constantinople for monophysitism;
alienated
Byzantine emperor Anastasius I; "two swords" of pope and emperor;
opposed Pelagianism,
Manichaeism, and Lupercalia;
called "vicar of Christ"; wrote part of Leonine Sacramentary
590 - 604 St. Gregory I : last of four original Doctors of the Church;
consolidated Papal States;
sent St. Augustine to
England; incorporated Gregorian chants in liturgy
625 - 638 Honroius I : bestowed pallium on
archbishops of Canterbury and York; wrote letter
seemingly supporting
Monothelitism, saying Christ had one will but two natures; called a
heretic by Third Council of
Constantinople in 680
795 - 816 St. Leo III : gang tried to gouge out his eyes and cut out his
tongue; imprisoned for
perjury and adultery; exonerated by
Charlemagne, whom he then crowned HRE
1049 - 1054 St. Leo IX : caused Great Schism by excommunicating patriarch
Michael Cerularius
of Constantinople with bull
in Hagia Sophia
1073 - 1085 St. Gregory VII : opposed simony (sale of clerical office) and lay
investiture, leading
to Investiture Controversy;
HRE Henry IV declared Gregory VII deposed
1088 - 1099 Urban II : launched First Crusade; sought to end Great Schism but
continued
opposition to investiture
1099 - 1118 Pashal II : resolved disputes with
English Henry I and French Philip I; First Crusade
successful; continued
investiture conflict with HRE Henry IV and Henry V, who took him
prisoner; after 61 days gave
Henry right to appoint bishops but nullified this in 1112
1159 - 1181 Alexander III : studied under Gratian, father of canon law; negotiated
Treaty of
Constance with HRE Frederick
I; forced English Henry II to do penance for murder of Thomas
a Becket; forced into French
exile by Frederick I; presided over Third Lateran Council
1198 - 1216 Innocent III : established control of Papal States; declared crusade
against dualist
Albigensianism in 1208; launched
unsuccessful Fourth Crusade; convoked Fourth Lateran
Council; encouraged St.
Dominic and St. Francis
1227 - 1241 Gregory IX : excommunicated HRE Frederick II for not going on
crusade; issued
Excommunicamus to prosecute Albigensian
heretics, establishing Inquisition; collected
decretals to codify canon
law
1294 - 1303 Boniface VIII : issued Clericis Laicos against French Philip IV and English Edward I,
forbidding clergy taxes;
asserted papal supremacy in Unam Sanctum bull;
imprisoned by
Philip IV
1305 - 1314 Clement V : first pope to reside at Avignon in Babylonian Captivity;
controlled by
French Philip IV; suppressed
Knights Templar
1417 - 1431 Martin V : election by Council of Constance ended Great Schism
1431 - 1447 Eugene IV : struggled against Council of Basel; French Charles VII
issued Pragmatic
Sanction in 1438 giving
French church some freedom; moved Council of Basel to Ferrara
then Florence; temporarily
rejoined Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches
1513 - 1521 Leo X : son of Lorenzo de' Medici; led Fifth Lateran Council;
excommunicated
Martin Luther in 1521 for
1517 protests against sale of indulgences
1523 - 1534 Clement VII : held prisoner by HRE Charles Vfor
seven months in 1527; declared
English Henry VIII's
marriage to Catherine of Aragon still valid; patronized Cellini,
Raphael, and Michelangelo
1534 - 1549 Paul III : revived Inquisition; started Counter Reformation;
Michelangelo began work
on Sistine Chapel;
negotiated Treaty of Nice between HRE Charles V and French Francis I;
excommunicated English Henry
VIII 1538; called Council of Trent; established Jesuits (Society
of Jesus)
1559 - 1565 Pius IV : reconvened Council of Trent; commissioned Michelangelo
1846 - 1878 Pius IX : longest pontificate; fled to Naples during 1848
revolution; supported
Ultramontanism; called First Vatican
Council; proclaimed Immaculate Conception; lost Papal
States to reunified Italy
1878 - 1903 Leo XIII : Rerum Novarum encyclical supported just wages and
trade unions; known
as "the workers'
pope"; opened Vatican Library and established universities
1903 - 1914 St. Pius X : opposed Modernist movement, which reinterpreted religion
in light of
science; opposed
anticlerical legislation in France and Portugal; started Roman Catholic Action
movement
1914 - 1922 Benedict XV : neutral during WWI; restored relations with France and
Britain;
promulgated Code of Canon
Law
1922 - 1939 Pius XI : Quadragesimo Anno encyclical
supported reconstruction of social order;
signed Lateran Treaty with
Mussolini, gaining control of Vatican
1939 - 1958 Pius XII : Mystici Corporis Christi
condemned false mysticism; named 32 new
cardinals to the Sacred
College; anti-Communist; tried to bring peace in WWII
1958 - 1963 John XXIII : called Second Vatican Council; established
secretariat for promoting
Christian unity; Ecumenical
Movement promoted Christian-Jewish dialogue
1963 - 1978 Paul VI : presided over most of Second Vatican Council; nullified
excommunications
with Greek Orthodox
patriarch Athenagoras I; met with Coptic Orthodox
patriarch Shenouda III;
traveled extensively
1978 John Paul I : first with double name; died after 34 days
1978 - 2005 John Paul II : Polish (Karol Wojtyla), first
non-Italian since 1523; assassination attempt
May 13
1981 by Mehmet Ali Agca; conservative and
well-traveled
2005
- 2013 Benedict XVI : German, first to resign before
death since Gregory XII in 1415
2013
- ? Francis : Argentine
(Jorge Bergoglio), first from Americas, first Jesuit pope, first non-
European
since Syrian Gregory III in the 700s
Early
Kings
1139 - 1185 Alfonso I : first king of Portugal; captured Lisbon
1438 - 1481 Alfonso V the African : sponsored west African exploration by Henry the
Navigator
1495 - 1521 Manuel I : sponsored da Gama, Cabral, Afonso de Albuquerque
1521 - 1557 John III : title to Brazil confirmed by Congress of Badajoz in
1524; established
Inquisition in Portugal;
increased influence over the Moluccas (Spice Islands)
1580 - 1640
: Spanish kings Philip I, II, III
Braganza
1640 - 1656 John IV : drove out Spanish usurpers at Battle of Montijo; first Braganza king
1706 - 1750 John V : allied with British in War of Spanish Succession; named
"Most Faithful
King" by Pope Benedict
XIV
1816 - 1826 John VI : fled to Brazil; mother Maria I became insane; son Pedro
became emperor of
Brazil; suppressed revolt
led by wife and son Dom Miguel
1908 - 1910 Manuel II : last king of Portugal; father King Carlos assassinated;
fled naval revolt
1932 - 1968 Antonio de
Oliveira Salazar : economics professor at Coimbra;
balanced budget; 36-
year dictator
1640 - 1688 Frederick
William the Great Elector : acquired land for
Brandenburg; admitted
Hugunots; neutral during Thirty
Years' War
1701 - 1713 Frederick I : patronized scholars such as Leibnez;
est. Academy of Sciences
1713 - 1740 Frederick
William I : centralized Prussian finances; proud of
Potsdam Guard;
developed strong army
1740 - 1786 Frederick II the
Great : learned warfare from dad FWI and music from
mom Sophia
Dorothea; won Silesia from
Maria Theresa in War of Austrian Succession; Pragmatic
Sanction gave lands to Maria
Theresa; supported US in revolution
1786 - 1797 Frederick
William II : supported Louis XVI; forced to cede land
to France in Treaty
of Basel; won land in Polish
partitions; influenced by Rosicrucian Order not
Enlightenment
1797 - 1840 Frederick
William III : fought Napoleon; joined Holy Alliance
1840 - 1861 Frederick
William IV : new constitution; became insane
Legendary
Kings
753 - 715 BC Romulus : he and twin brother Remus (sons of Rhea Silvia;
daughter of king of
Alba Longa); founded Rome
715 - 676 BC Numa Pompilius : introduced many religious customs
673 - 641 BC Tullus Hostilius : destroyed Alba Longa and fought Sabines
641 - 613 BC Ancus Marcius : captured many
Latin towns; built port of Ostia
616 - 578 BC Lucius Tarquinius Priscus : constructed many public buildings in Rome
578 - 534 BC Servius Tullius : created new constitution; enlarged boundaries of
Rome
534 - 510 BC Lucius Tarquinius Superbas : tyrant; his son outraged Lucretia and he was banished
Figures
from the Republic
Brennus : Gaul chieftan who burned
Rome in 390 BC
Pyrrhus : king of Epirus; helped
Greek cities of southern Italy fight Rome; 280-276 BC in Pyrrhic
War but lost
Gaius Duilius : consul who led
naval victory over Carthage in First Punic War at Mylae
in 260 BC
Marcus Atilius Regulus : general to lost to Carthage in Africa during First
Punic War
Hamilcar : Carthage general who
occupied Spain; father of Hannibal
Hannibal : Carthage general who
crossed the Alps in Second Punic War beginning 218 BC
Scipio Africanus
: Roman general who invaded Carthage and defeated Hannibal at Zama 202
BC
Philip V :
Macedonian king defeated by Romans in Second Macedonian War 200-197 BC
Cincinnatus
:
dictator for 16 days; defeated Aequi in 458 and
returned to his farm
Antiochus III
: king of Syria defeated by Romans at Magnesia 190 BC
Perseus : son of Philip V; lost to
Romans in Third Macedonian War
Lucius Aemilius
Paullus :
Roman general who captured Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC
Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor :
destroyed Carthage in 146 BC in Third
Punic War
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus : brothers who served as people's tribunes and
attempted to help the
poor by agrarian and corn
laws; both died in separate riots 133 and 121 BC; sons of
Cornelia and grandsons of
Scipio Africanus
Marcus Drusus
: attempted to help poor; assassinated 91 BC
Lucius Cinna and Marius : leaders of the popular party; became consuls
Mithridates VI Eupator : king of Pontus;
defeated by Sulla, Lucullus, and Pompey the Great (66 BC)
Sulla : left Rome to fight Mithridates in 87 BC; returned in 83 BC and defeated Cinna
Pompey the Great : ended Servile War by Spartacus; cleared
Mediterranean of pirates; captured
Jerusalem; formed First
Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Marcus Crassus; defeated by
Caesar at Pharsalus in 48
BC; murdered in Egypt
Marcus Licinius
Crassus : member of First Triumvirate; very wealthy;
killed by Parthians in Syria
at Battle of Carrhae
Julius Gaius Caesar : governor of Spain; joined First Triumvirate;
conquered northern Gaul;
crossed Rubicon and marched
on Rome making Pompey flee; assassinated on Ides of
March 44 BC
Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius : two nobles who assassinated Julius Caesar; crushed
by
Octavian and Antony at
Philippi
Mark Antony
: served with Caesar against Pompey; formed Second Triumvirate with Octavius
and
Lepidus; married Octavius's
sister; affair with Cleopatra; defeated by Octavius at Actium;
committed suicide with
Cleopatra at Alexandria
Marcus Aemilius
Lepidus : member of Second Triumvirate; controlled
Africa; tried to take Sicily
from Octavian and was
expelled from triumvirate
The
Empire
27 BC - 14 AD : Augustus : originally Octavian; period of cultural
development called Augustan
Age; formed Second
Triumvirate; forced Lepidus from power; defeated Antony at Actium;
wife Livia
14 - 37 Tiberius
: stepson of Augustus; married his daughter Julia; studied at Rhodes for
seven
years; left Praetorian Guard
prefect Lucius Sejanus in charge while he went to Campania
and Capreae
37 - 41 Caligula
: name means "Little Boot"; joint heir with Tiberius Gemellus but chosen sole
emperor by Senate; became
tyrant after illness; made horse a consul; assassinated by his
guards
41 - 54 Claudius I : semiretired after conspiracy against him; cruel wife
Messalina assumed
powers; began conquest of
Britain; executed Messalina; married niece Agrippina the
Younger who poisoned him
54 - 68 Nero
: moderate rule for five years; then executed mom and wife Octavia; Rome
burned in
64; revolts in Britain and
Judea; Praetorian Guard revolt in 68; suicide
68 - 68 Galba
: assassinated after naming unpopular successor
69 - 69 Otho
69 - 69 Vitellius
Favian Emperors
: Vespasian; Titus; Domitian
69 - 79 Vespasian
: campaigned in Britain and Judea; 9-year world peace; suppressed
Germanic
Batavian revolt under Julius
Civilis; General Agricola led conquests in Britain;
Colosseum
constructed
79 - 81 Titus
: destroyed Jerusalem in 70; beneficent after Vesuvius eruption in 79
and fire and
plague in Rome in 80
81 - 96 Domitian
: clashed with Senate; defeated revolt led by Antonius Saturnius of Upper
Germany; executed many
aristocrats; murdered by officials and wife Domitia
Five Good Emperors
: Nerva; Trajan; Hadrian; Antonius Pius;
Marcus Aurelius
96 - 98 Nerva
98 - 117 Trajan
: conquered Dacia and Mesopotamia; fought Parthians
117 - 138 Hadrian
: ended Roman expansion; built Hadrian's Wall for defense; patron of
arts;
erected Athenaeum; Temple of
Venus; Roma; mausoleum Castel Sant'Angelo; and rebuilt
Pantheon
138 - 161 Antonius Pius : built wall between Forth and Clyde rivers in Britain;
Antonine Column
now in Vatican built in his
honor by Marcus Aurelius
161 - 180 Marcus Aurelius : Stoic philosopher; champion of poor; wrote
Meditations
180 - 192 Commodus
: cruel tyrant; murdered; Galen of Pergamum was his physician
193 - 211 Lucius Septimius Severus : purchased throne from Praetorian Guard; military
and legal
reform; reduced power of
aristocracy; defeated Parthians and British revolt
211 - 217 Caracalla
: real name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus;
nickname from Gaul cloak; cruel;
built Baths of Carcalla and Arch of Septimius
217 - 217 Marcus Macrinus :
murdered Caracalla
218 - 222 Heliogabalus
: priest of Baal
222 - 235 Alexander Severus : wise and just
235 - 268
: 12 emperors in 33 years
Illyrian Emperors
: Claudius II through Diocletian
268 - 270 Claudius II : defeated Goths
270 - 275 Lucius Aurelian : defeated Germanic Alamanni;
made Danube the western boundary;
defeated Queen Zenobia of
Palmyra; given title Restitutor Orbis (Restorer of
the Empire)
by Senate; built Wall of
Aurelian around Rome
275 - 284
: 6 emperors in 9 years
284 - 305 Diocletian
: empire divided into four parts ruled by caesars
and augutuses; Maximian
second in command
306 - 337 Constantine the Great : first Roman ruler to convert to Christianity;
believed in sun god
Sol but then saw cross on
sun before winning a battle; co-emperor Lucinius;
issued Edict
of Milan mandating tolerance
of Christians; presided over Council of Nicaea in 325; began
building Constantinople
337 - 351
: civil wars among rivals
351 - 361 Constantius II : defeated Magnentius at Battle of Mursa;
Arian Christian; opponent of
St. Athanasius (orthodox
bishop of Alexandria)
361 - 363 Julian the Apostate : renounced Christianity
363 - 364 Jovian
: last emperor before division of empire
Western
Roman Emperors
364 - 375 Valentinian I : split empire with brother Valens; defeated Alamanni; orthodox Christian
375 - 392 Valentinian II : driven from Italy by Magnus Maximus; restored to power
by
Theodosius I; murdered by Arbogast who
installed Eugenius as emperor
394 - 395 Theodosius I the Great : last to rule a united Roman Empire; orthodox
Christian;
persecuted Arians
384 - 423 Honorius
: Rome sacked by King Alaric I of the Visigoths in 410; Ataulf withdrew
Visigoths to Gaul and Wallia founded dynasty at Toulouse
425 - 455 Valentinaian III : General Flavius
Aetius held most power; Africa taken by King
Gaiseric of the Vandals;
fought Atilla th eHun at Chalons-sur-Marne in 451
455 - 475
: 9 emperors in 20 years; real power was General Riimer
the Suebe; called the
Kingmaker
475 - 476 Romulus Augustulus :
called Augustulus because of his youth; exiled by
Odoacer who
became king; ending Western
Roman Empire
1857 - 1866 Alexandru Ion Cuza : united Moldavia and Walachia as Romania subject to
Ottoman
Empire
1866 - 1914 Carol I : aided Russia in Russo-Turkish War and gained
independence from Ottoman
Empire at the Congress of
Berlin; fought Balkan Wars; member of Hohenzollern family
1914 - 1927 Ferdinand I : joined Allies in WWI
1930 - 1940 Carol II : formed but later ended Fascist Iron Guard; abdicated
when Germany
invaded
1940 - 1944 Ion Antonescu :
appointed premier by Carol II; joined Germany in invasion of USSR
1945 - 1965 Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej : head of Communist
Party
1965 - 1989 Nicolae Ceausescu : fought rebellion beginning in Timisoara;
executed with wife
Elena on Christmas 1989
1990 - 1996, 2000-2004 Ion Iliescu : led National Salvation Front; restored democracy
Rurik
Dynasty
862 - 879 Rurik
: consolidated Slavic tribes at Novgorod; dynasty moved to Kiev in 972
988 - 1015 Saint Vladimir : baptism made Orthodox Christianity official
Russian religion; married
Byzantine Basil II's
daughter Anne
1246 - 1263 Alexander Nevsky :
prince of Novgorod; beat Swedes at Neva River; beat Teutonic
Knights at Lake Peipus
Estonia; mediated with Mongols
1462 - 1505 Ivan III the Great : acquired land from Lapland to Urals; invaded
Lithuania; ruled like
a Byzantine
1530 - 1584 Ivan IV the Terrible : son of Basil III; first crowned czar; convoked
first national
assembly; expanded to Volga
River; became erratic and brutal
Time
of Troubles
1598 - 1605 Boris Godunov : regent for young czar Fyodor; became czar; first
to banish people
to Siberia; civil war
against pretender to throne in Poland
1605 - 1606 False Dmitri
Romanov
Dynasty
1613 - 1645 Michael Romanov : elected tsar by national assemby;
established dynasty
1645 - 1676 Alexis I: lost
war to Sweden; schism in Russian Orthodox Church
1682 - 1725 Peter I the Great : modernized and Westernized Russia; first shared
throne with
older half
brother Ivan V; created first Russian navy; captured Azov from Turks on
Black
Sea; defeated Sweden in
Battle of Poltava 1709; founded St. Petersburg
1725 - 1727 Catherine I : Peter's wife
1762 - 1796 Catherine II the
Great : married Grand Duke Peter of Holstein who was
overthrown
by Imperial Guards; expanded
serfdom; disbanded Cossack army after revolt; won two
wars against Ottomans;
annexed Crimea
1801 - 1825 Alexander I : introduced reforms; allied with Prussia but then France
briefly; turned
back Napoleon near Moscow;
formed Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia 1815
1825 - 1855 Nicholas I : suppressed Decembrist revolt of reformist army officers
who favored his
brother Constantine; wars
against Iran; Poland; and Turkey
1855 - 1881 Alexander II : ended Crimean War with Treaty of Paris; abolished
serfdom in 1861;
reforms; sold Alaska to US
in 1867; assassinated by bomb thrown in his carriage by
People's Will
revolutionaries
1881 - 1894 Alexander III : restored absolutism; persecuted Jews; joined France
against Triple
Alliance
1894 - 1917 Nicholas II : married German princess Alexandra; opposed democracy;
lost Russo-
Japanese War 1904; formed
Duma; relied on mystic Rasputin; abdicated March 1917;
executed by Bolsheviks July
16; 1918
Provisional
Government
1917 - 1917 Prince Georgi
Lvov
1917 - 1917 Aleksandr Kerensky : provisional prime minister; suppressed Lenin's
Bolshevik
Party; who seized power
October 25 1917; his troops refused to fight at
Petrograd;
lectured in US
Soviet
Union
1917 - 1922 Vladimir Ilich Lenin : in exile wrote What
Is to Be Done? ; his Bolsheviks were
opposed by Mensheviks; took
power in second revolution in October 1918; he and Trotsky
won civil war; made peace
with Germans at Brest-Litovsk; issued New Economic Policy with
mixed market; strokes in
1922 and 1923
1922 - 1953 Joseph Stalin : joined troka with Zinovyev and Kamenev after Lenin's death; sole
leader by 1929; forced
massive collectivization program; political purges; won in World War II
1953 - 1964 Nikita Khrushchev : battled for power with Malenkov and KGB head
Beria; executed
Beria; denounced Stalin;
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
1964 - 1982 Leonid Brezhnev : shared power with Kosygin and Podgorny briefly;
developed
Brezhnev Doctrine saying
communist states can intervene in each other's affairs; detente with
US; signed first SALT treaty
1982 - 1984 Yuri Andropov
1984 - 1985 Konstantin Chernenko
1985 - 1991 Mikhail Gorbachev : introduced restructuring perestroika and
openness glasnost;
withdrew troops from
Afghanistan; won 1990 Nobel; survived 3-day 1991 coup but then resigned;
allowed Baltic independence
Democratic
Russia
1991 - 2000 Boris Yeltsin : resisted August 1991 hard-line
coup; elected Russian president;
formed Commonwealth of
Independent States; introduced free market reforms; Chechnya rebellion;
defeated Zyuganov in 1996;
Premier Chernomyrdin; cooperated with NATO
2000 - 2008, 2012 - ? Vladimir Putin : appointed
prime minister by Yeltsin in August 1999; led Russia
against Chechnya; Unity bloc
supported him
2008
- 2012 Dmitry Medvedev
846 - 860 Kenneth I MacAlpin :
traditional first Scottish king; conquered Pictish
Kingdom; made
capital at Scone; invaded Lothain
1034 - 1040 Duncan I : killed by Macbeth of Moray
1040 - 1057 Macbeth : murdered Duncan I; killed in battle by Malcolm
Canmore in 1057
1093 - 1094 and 1095 - 1097 : Donald Bane; briefly deposed by nephew Duncan II
1124 - 1153 David I : failed to have niece Matilda enthroned in England
1165 - 1214 William the Lion : made alliance with French Louis VII; captured by
English Henry
II near Alnwick
and assented to Treaty of Falaise acknowledging Henry
as overlord; secured
independence of Scottish
church from pope; Richard surrendered claims for payment
1214 - 1249 Alexander II : supported barons against English John; Peace of York
established
boundary with England
1292 - 1296 John de Baliol : English Edward I selected him over Robert de Bruce
VI as king;
allied with France and
captured by English
1306 - 1329 Robert I Bruce : deposed by English Edward I but reconquered most of
Scotland
within two years; defeated
English at Battle of Bannockburn in 1314; made truce with Edward II
but warred again with Edward
III
1329 - 1371 David II Bruce : deposed by Edward de Baliol; allied with France and
lost to English
at Neville's Cross 1346;
ransomed
1371 - 1390 Robert II : founded Stuart dynasty; twice regent for David II
1406 - 1437 James I : English prisoner 1406-1423; daughter married French
Louis XI;
assassinated by nobles
1437 - 1460 James II : Douglas family served as regent; stabbed William 8th
earl of Douglas;
entangled in War of Roses;
killed in siege of Roxburgh Castle
1460 - 1488 James III : gained Orkney and Shetland islands by marrying
Margaret of Denmark;
imprisoned by brother
Alexander Stewart duke of Albany; English captured Berwick; lost to
nobles at Sauchieburn
1488 - 1513 James IV : supported Perkin Warbeck's claim to English throne; married
Margaret
Tudor, leading to
English-Scottish union eventually; allied with France but lost to English at
Battle of Flodden Field;
patronized arts
1513 - 1542 James V : John Stewart duke of Albany became his protector; taken
prisoner by
stepdad Archibald 6th earl
of Angus; refused to repudiate Catholicism and was routed by English
Henry VIII at Solway Moss
1542 - 1567 Mary Queen of
Scots (Mary Stuart) : married French Francis II, then
Henry Stewart
Lord Darnley; defeated
revolt by brother James Stuart earl of Moray; Darnley murdered adviser
David Rizzio; James Hepburn
4th earl of Bothwell had Darnley strangled and married Mary; lost
to nobles; executed by
Elizabeth I
1567 - 1625 James VI : became James I of Great Britain (see Great Britain
list)
1479-1516 Ferdinand V (with
wife Isabella I) : empowered by Pope Sixtus IV to start Spanish
Inquisition, led by
Torquemada; funded Christopher Columbus
1516-1556 Charles I (Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V) : 1552 Peace of Passau
allowed Lutherans
to exercise religion,
reaffirmed by 1555 Peace of Augsburg; fought France and Ottomans
1556-1598 Philip II : Netherlands began fight for independence; destroyed
Ottoman navy at
Lepanto; became king of
Portugal; Spanish Armada defeated by English 1588
1598-1621 Philip III : backed Austria in Thirty Years War; drove out last of
the Moriscos
1621-1665 Philip IV : lost Netherlands in Treaty of Westphalia; ceded
Roussillon to France in
Treaty of the Pyrenees;
patron of Velazquez, de Vega, and Calderon
1700 - 1746 Philip V (Philip
of Anjou) : first Spanish Bourbon; grandson of Louis
XIV of France;
ascension led to War of the
Spanish Succession
1759 - 1788 Charles III : conquered Two Sicilies
(becoming Charles IV)
1788 - 1808 Charles IV : ceded Louisiana to France; navy destroyed at Trafalgar;
influenced by
wife Maria Louisa of Parma
and paramour Manuel de Godoy; deposed by Napoleon
1808 - 1813 Joseph : brother of Napoleon
1814 - 1833 Ferdinand VII : arrested by father Charles IV; imprisoned by Napoleon;
imprisoned
during 1820 rebellion
1833 - 1868 Isabella II : Salic Law set aside; Carlists supporting her uncle Don Carlos
defeated in
1839; mom Maria Christina;
deposed in 1868 Revolution
1885 - 1923 Alphonso XIII : lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Sulu Islands,
and Marianas in
Spanish-American War
1923 - 1930 Primo de Rivera
y Orbaneja
: soldier; established military dictatorship but then
became prime minister;
suppressed Moroccan revolt; son founded Falange Party
1931 - 1936 Niceto Alcala Zamora : socialist
president during Second Republic
1936 - 1939 Manuel Azana :
fled to France after Nationalist victory in civil war; had little control
over Republican generals
such as Negrin (ousted in coup by Casado, who
surrendered to
Nationalists under Franco)
1939 - 1975 Francisco Franco : El caudillo; led Nationalist forces in Spanish
Civil War
1975 - 2014 Juan Carlos : grandson of Alphonso XIII; wife
Sofia of Greece; 1978 constitution; son
2014
- ? Felipe VI
1130 - 1156 Sverker :
united Swedes and Goths; capital at Uppsala
1397 - 1523 Ruled by Denmark
under Union of Kalmar; Riksdag parliament founded
1435
1523 - 1560 Gustav I Vasa : founded house of Vasa; freed Sweden from Danish
Christian II
1604 - 1611 Charles IX : defeated Catholic nephew Polish Zygmunt
III at Stangebro
1611 - 1632 Gustavus II Adolfphus the Lion of
the North : entered Thirty Years' War to acquire
Baltic states; killed at
Battle of Lutzen
1632 - 1654 Christina : Axel Oxenstierna served as regent; supported
lower estates against nobles
and Council of the Realm;
Thirty Years' War caused economic problems; influenced by
Descartes; never married;
converted to Catholicism
1654 - 1660 Charles X Gustav : first of Palatinate dynasty; invaded Poland against
cousin Jan II
Kazimierz; allied with
Brandenburg Frederick William and won at Warsaw; won lands from
Danish Frederick II in
Treaty of Roskilde; lost at Copenhagen
1660 - 1697 Charles XI : allied with French Louis XIV in Dutch Wars; lost land
but regained most
in Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye; wiped out public debt
and strengthened military
1697 - 1718 Charles XII : fought Great Northern War 1700-1721; invaded Denmark,
routed
Russia at Narva Estonia, overran Poland; crushed by Russia; besieged
at Stralsund; killed
in Norway
1720 - 1751 Frederick I : wife Ulrika Eleonora abdicated for him; Hats wanted to
regain land from
Russia but Caps wanted
peace; warred with Russia 1741-1743
1792 - 1809 Gustav IV Adolphus : lost land to Napoleon
1809 - 1818 Charles XIII : lost Finland to Russia 1809 but united with Norway
1814
1818 - 1844 Charles XIV John : fought in French Revolution and at Austerlitz; fought
against
France at Leipzig; obtained
Norway from Denmark by Treaty of Kiel
1844 - 1859 Oscar I : second Bernadotte monarch; married granddaughter of
Josephine de
Beauharnais, wife of
Napoleon
1859 - 1872 Charles XV : made Riksdag bicameral;
instituted reforms; wrote poems
1872 - 1907 Oscar II : allowed Norwegian independence; arbitrated
international disputes
1907 - 1950 Gustavus V : maintained neutrality
in WWI and WWII
1950 - 1973 Gustav VI Adolph : authority on Chinese archaeology
1973 - ?
Carl XVI Gustavus : king became figurehead only
Ukraine
1994-2005 Leonid Danylovich Kuchma
2005-2010
Viktor Yushchenko : poisoned by dioxin
2010-2014
Viktor Yanukovych : favored ties with Russia rather
than EU; ousted by Euromaidan protests;
Russia
annexed Crimea
2014-?
Oleksandr Turchynov
Yugoslavia
1918 - 1921 Petar I : Kingdom of the Serbs,
Croats, and Slovenes established after WWI
1921 - 1934 Alexandar I : ruled as dictator;
assassinated by Croatian separatist in Marseilles
1943 - 1980 Josep Broz Tito : led Partisans,
rivals of Cetniks, during WWII; leader of Nonaligned
nations
1997 - 2001 Slobodan Milosevic : president of Serbia 1989-1997; supported ethnic
cleansing of
Bosnian Serbs; signed Dayton
Accords; tried in The Hague for war crimes
Croatia
1990 - 1999 Franjo Tudjman : leader of
Croatian Democratic Union; won independence for
Croatia from Yugoslavia;
fought Serb-controlled Krajina; signed Dayton Accords
2000 - present Stipe Mesic
Bosnia
and Herzegovina
1990 - 2001 Alija Izetbegovic : Muslim leader
in Bosnian civil war; won independence for Bosnia
from Yugoslavia; signed
Dayton Accords