Physics
Antiferromagnetism - magnetism in which adjacent ions that act as tiny
magnets spontaneously align
themselves at relatively low
temperatures into opposite (antiparallel) arrangements so that overall the
solid does not exhibit
magnetism; occurs with manganese oxide
Auger
Effect - outer shell electron replaces removed inner electron, releasing energy
as X-ray or ejecting
another electron
Cherenkov
Radiation - light produced by charged particles when they pass through an
optically transparent
medium at speeds greater
than the speed of light in that medium; named for 1958 Soviet Nobel winner
Compton
Effect - increase in wavelength of X-rays that have been elastically scattered
by electrons;
principal way in which
radiant energy is absorbed in matter; named for 1927 American Nobel winner
Diamagnetism
- magnetism characteristic of materials that line up at right angles to a
nonuniform magnetic
field and that partially
expel from their interior the magnetic field in which they are placed
Doppler
Effect - the apparent difference between the frequency at which sound or light
waves leave a
source and that at which
they reach an observer, caused by the relative motion of the observer and the
wave source; red shift if
receding, blue shift if approaching
Dynamo
Effect - production of the Earth's main magnetic field by an electric field in
the core
Edison
Effect - thermionic emission; discharge of electrons from heated materials;
used as electron source
in electron tubes
Faraday
Effect - rotation of the plane of polarization of a light beam by a magnetic
field
Ferroelectricity
- spontaneous electric polarization occurs in crystals with perovskite
structure, such as
barium titanate
Ferromagnetism
- electrically uncharged materials strongly attract others
Hall
Effect - development of a transverse electric field in a solid material when it
carries an electric current
and is placed in a magnetic
field that is perpendicular to the current
Hysteresis
Effect - magnetization of ferromagnetic substances lags behind the magnetizing
field
Hawking
Radiation - when a particle pair is created near a black hole, one falls into
the hole and the other
escapes as radiation
Josephson
Effect - flow of electric current between two pieces of superconducting
material separated by a
thin layer of insulating
material
Joule-Thompson
Effect - cooling of a gas as it undergoes adiabatic expansion
Lamb
Shift - separation of energy in nearly coincident electron levels of hydrogen;
named for 1955
American Nobel winner
Lorentz-Fitzgerald
Contraction - space contraction; the shortening of an object along the
direction of its
motion relative to an
observer
Meissner
Effect - the expulsion of a magnetic field from the interior of a material that
is in the process of
becoming a superconductor
Mikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein Effect - neutrinos with mass oscillate among
flavor states
Mossbauer
Effect - also called recoil-free gamma-ray resonance absorption; nuclear
process permitting the
resonance absorption of
gamma rays; radioactive atoms are imbedded in a crystal lattice, allowing
very precise measurements;
named for 1961 German Nobel winner
Paramagnetism - magnetism characteristic of materials weakly attracted by a strong
magnet
Paschen-Back Effect - Zeeman spectral patterns are lost at magnetic
separations for natural doublets,
triplets, etc.
Peltier
Effect - the cooling of one junction and the heating of the other when electric
current is maintained
in a circuit of material
consisting of two dissimilar conductors
Photoelectric
Effect - charged particles are released from a material when it absorbs radiant
energy
Quantum
Tunneling - barrier penetration; particle travels through a barrier despite the
fact that the
particle's presence in the
barrier is forbidden by classical physics
Raleigh
Scattering - dispersion of electromagnetic radiation by particles that have a
radius less than one-
tenth the wavelength of the
radiation; angle of sunlight varies inversely as fourth power of
wavelength so blue is
scattered most and sky appears blue
Raman
Effect - change in wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is
deflected by molecules;
named for 1930 Indian Nobel
winner
Seebeck Effect - production of an electromagnetic force and consequently an
electric current in a loop of
material consisting of at
least two dissimilar conductors when two junctions are maintained at
different temperatures;
applicable in thermocouples
Stark
Effect - splitting of spectral lines in an electric field; named for 1919
German Nobel winner
Tachyons
- particles that travel faster than the speed of light
Tyndall
Effect - scattering of light by a colloid
Voigt
Effect - a constant magnetic field applied to a transparent gaseous medium
produces a birefringence
such that the vapor has
different indices of refraction in different directions
Zeeman
Effect - splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field; named for 1902 Dutch
Nobel winner
Equations
of Motion:
v = v0 + at
x = x0 = v0t
+ at2/2
v2 = v02
+ 2a(x - x0)
x - x0 = ((v0
+ v)/2)t
v = dx/dt
a = dv/dt
Projectile
Motion in 2D
x = (v0cos(a0)t
y = (v0sin(a0))t - gt2/2
vx = v0cos(a0)
vy = v0sin(a0) - gt
Radial
acceleration = v2/R ; period = 2pR/v
Relative
velocity: vP/A = vP/B + vB/A
Newton's
First Law states that when the vector sum of all forces acting on a body is
zero, the body is in
equilibrium; in inertial
frames of reference, a body in motion will stay in motion and a body at rest
will stay
at rest.
Newton's
Second Law states that F = ma.
Unit
of force is Newton = 1 kg*m/s2
Weight
is the gravitational force exerted on an object.
Newton's
Third Law states that two bodies exert forces on each other that are equal in
magnitude and
opposite in direction;
action equals reaction.
Free-body
diagrams are used to show forces acting on a body.
The
coefficient of kinetic friction is directly proportional to the normal force
(perpendicular to interaction surface).
The
acceleration toward the center in uniform circular motion has magnitude v2/R.
The
fundamental forces are gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak.
Work
= F*s*cos(f) = dot product of F and s
vectors
Kinetic
energy is the amount of work required to accelerate a particle from rest to
speed v = mv2/2
Unit
of work is the Joule = 1 N*m = 1 kg*m2/s2
Work
energy theorem: Wtotal = K2 - K1
Power
is the time rate of doing work; P = dW/dt
Unit
of power is the watt = 1 J/s = 1 kg*m2/s3
Potential
energy -DU = mgy1 - mgy2
Elastic
work by compressed spring: W = kx12/2 - kx22/2
K1
+ U1 +Wother = K2 +
U2
For
a conservative force, the work-kinetic energy relation is completely reversible
and can be represented by a
potential-energy
function; F(x) = -dU/dx
Momentum:
p = mv
SF = dp/dt
Impulse:
J = SF Dt = p2 - p1
Momentum
equals the impulse that accelerated a particle from rest to its present speed.
Total
momentum: P = pA + pB
+ ...
Each
component of total momentum is conserved if the net external force is zero.
In
an elastic collision, the initial and final total kinetic energies are equal
and the initial and final relative velocities
have
the same magnitude.
In
an inelastic collision the final total kinetic energy is less than the initial
total kinetic energy (if same final velocity,
it
is completely inelastic).
Center
of mass: xcenter = (Smx)/Sm ; ycenter
= (Smx)/Sm
Total
momentum equals total mass times velocity of center of mass.
Fexternal = Macenter
of mass
Angular
velocity: w = dq/dt
Angular
acceleration: a = dw/dt
Equations
of motion of rigid body about a fixed axis with constant angular acceleration
q = q0 + w0t + at2/2
q - q0 = (w0 + w)t/2
w = w0 + at
w2 = w02 + 2a(q - q0)
v =
rw
atangential = ra
aradial (centripetal) = v2/r = w2r
Moment
of inertia: I = Smr2
Kinetic
energy: K = Iw2/2
Parallel
axis theorem: Iparallel axis = Icm + Md2
Moments
of inertia
Slender rod, axis through
center: ML2/12
Slender rod, axis through
one end: ML2/3
Plate, axis through center:
M(a2+b2)/12
Plate, axis along edge b: Ma2/3
Hollow cylinder: M(R12
+ R22)/2
Solid cylinder: MR2/2
Thin-walled hollow cylinder:
MR2
Solid sphere: 2MR2/5
Thin-walled hollow sphere:
2MR2/3
Torque:
t = Fl (l is lever arm) ; counterclockwise
positive; torque equals cross product of r and F
St = Ia
Translational
and rotational kinetic energy: K = Mvcm2/2 + Icmw2/2
If
the rigid body rolls without slipping, vcm
= Rw
Work:
W = tDq
Work-energy
theorem for rotation of rigid body: W = Iw22/2 - Iw12/2
Power:
P = tw
Angular
momentum: L = Iw = cross product of r and p,
with p = mv
St = dL/dt
If
net torque of external forces is zero, the total angular momentum is zero.
For
a rigid body in equilibrium, the vector sum of forces is zero and the sum of
torques about any point is zero.
The
weight can be assumed to be concentrated at the center of gravity, which is the
center of mass.
Hooke's
Law states that in elastic deformations, stress is proportional to strain;
elastic modulus = stress/strain.
Tensile
stress is tensile force per unit area, and tensile strain is fractional change
in length.
Young's
modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain; Y = (Ft/A)/(Dl/l0)
Compressive
stress and strain are defined the same way as tensile stress and strain.
Pressure
in fluid is force per unit area.
Unit
of pressure and stress is pascal = N/m2
Bulk
modulus is the negative of the ration of pressure change (bulk stress) to
fractional volume change;
B = -Dp/(DV/Vo)
Compressibility
is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus.
Shear
stress is force per unit area for a force applied parallel to a surface.
The
shear modulus is the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain angle; S =
(F/A)/f
The
proportional limit is the maximum stress for which stress and strain are
proportional; Hooke's law is
invalid beyond this.
The
elastic limit is the stress beyond which irreversible deformation occurs, and
the breaking (or ultimate)
strength is the stress at
which the material breaks.
Newton's
law of gravitation: F = Gm1m2/r2
Acceleration
due to gravity near Earth's surface is GmE/RE2
Gravitational
potential energy: U = - integral of F = -Gm1m2/r
Speed
of satellite: v = sqrt(Gm/r)
Period
of satellite: T = 2pr/v
Johannes
Kepler's Laws
Each planet moves in an
elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus.
A line from the sun to a
given planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
The periods of the planets
are proportional to the 3/2 powers of the major axis lengths of their orbits.
Weight
is 0.3% less at equator.
If
a nonrotating spherical mass distribution has radius less than the
Schwarzschild radius, 2GM/c2 , the
gravitational interaction
prevents anything including light from escaping; this is a black hole.
Periodic
motion occurs whenever a body has a stable equilibrium position and a restoring
force or torque.
Frequency
is inverse of period.
Angular
frequency: w = 2pf
In
simple harmonic motion (SHM), the net force is a restoring force that is
directly proportional to the
displacement; F = -kx ; a = F/m
The
projection on the horizontal axis of a rotating vector (using the circle of
reference construction) called
the phasor represents the
actual motion of a body in SHM.
w = sqrt(k/m)
x =
A*cos(wt + f) ; (amplitude A and phase angle f)
E =
kA2/2 = constant
Angular
simple harmonic motion: w = sqrt(K/I) ; (torsion constant K)
Pendulum:
w = sqrt(g/L)
Physical
pendulum: w = sqrt(mgd/I)
Damping
force: F = -bv
Damped
oscillation: critically damped if b = 2sqrt(km); w' = sqrt(k/m - b2/(4m2))
Forced
oscillation occurs when a sinusoidally varying driving force is added to a
damped harmonic oscillator.
Density:
p = m/V
Specific
gravity is ratio of density of a material to density of water.
Pascal's
law states that pressure applied to the surface of an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid.
Gauge
pressure is the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure
at depth h of incompressible liquid is pressure at surface plus p*g*h.
Archimedes'
principle states that a fluid exerts an upward buoyant force on an immersed
body equal to the
weight of the fluid the body
displaces.
Surface
tension is the force per unit length across a line on the surface.
An
ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity.
A flow
line is the path of a fluid particle and a streamline is a curve tangent at
each point to the velocity
vector at that point.
A
flow tube is a tube bounded at its sides by flow lines.
In
laminar flow, layers of fluid slide smoothly past each other.
In
turbulent flow there is great disorder and a constantly changing flow pattern.
Equation
of continuity: A1v1 = A2v2
Volume
flow rate: Av = dV/dt
Bernoulli's
equation relates pressure, flow speed, and elevation for steady flow in an
ideal fluid;
p1 + pgy1
+ pv12/2 = p2 + pgy2 + pv22/2
The
viscosity of a fluid characterizes its resistance to shear strain; in a
Newtonian fluid the viscous force is
proportional to strain rate.
Poiseuille's
equation for total volume rate in a cylindrical pipe; dV/dt
= p/8 * (R4/n)((p1-p2)/L)
Stokes'
law for a sphere moving through a fluid: F = 6pnrv
TF
= 9/5 TC + 32 ; TC = 5/9 (TF - 32) = Tk
- 273.15
The
triple point of water is at 273.16 K
DL = aL0DT
DV = 3aV0DT for solids
Tensile
stress: F/A = -YaDT
Quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of a material is mass times specific
heat capacity times
change in temperature.
Mass
= number of moles times molecular mass
The
Rule of Dulong and Petit states that the molar heat capacities of many solid
elements are
approximately 25 J/(mol*K).
Quantity
of heat required to change a material to a different state is mass times heat
of
fusion/vaporization/sublimation.
Conduction
is transfer of energy without bulk motion, convection involves mass motion, and
radiation is
energy transfer through
electromagnetic radiation.
Heat
current for conduction: H = dQ/dt = kA(TH
- TC)/L ; (thermal conductivity k)
Heat
current for radiation: H = AesT4 ; (emissivity
e, Stefan-Boltzmann constant s)
Net
heat current: H = Aes(T4 - Ts4)
Ideal-gas
equation of state: pV = nRT
Isotherms
on pV diagram show pressure as a function for volume
at constant temperature.
Average
translational kinetic energy of gas particles: K = 3/2 nRT
Root
mean square speed of molecules in ideal gas: vrms
= sqrt(3RT/M)
Mean
free path: l = vt
= V/(4pr2Nsqrt(2))
Molar
heat capacity for ideal: monatomic gas 3R/2, diatomic gas 5R/2, monatomic solid
3R
Speeds
of molecules in an ideal gas are distributed according to the Maxwell-Boltzmann
distribution.
On
a phase diagram, the vaporization curve ends at the critical point, above which
there is no distinction
between the gas and liquid
phases.
W =
p(V2 - V1)
Heat
and work in a thermodynamic process are not state functions.
First
Law: DU = Q - W
Internal
energy is a state function.
In
an adiabatic process, no heat is transferred in or out of the system; isochoric
is constant volume, isobaric
constant pressure, isothermal constant temperature.
The
internal temperature of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature; for all
else, it also depends on pressure.
Molar
heat capacity at constant pressure equals molar heat capacity at constant
volume plus R.
p1V1Cp/Cv = p2V2Cp/Cv
A
heat engine takes heat QH from a source, converts part of it to work
W, and discards the rest at lower
temperature
QC .
Thermal
efficiency: e = W/QH = 1 + QC/QH
Thermal
efficiency of Otto cycle gasoline engine: e = 1 - 1/rCp/Cv-1
Coefficient
of performance: K = | QC/W |
The
Second Law states that no cyclic process can convert heat completely into work
(engine statement) or
transfer
heat from a colder place to a hotter place with no work input (refrigerator
statement).
Thermal
efficiency of the Carnot cycle of reversible processes between two heat
reservoirs: e = 1 - TC/TH
All Carnot engines between the same two temperatures have the same efficiency.
A
backwards Carnot engine is a Carnot refrigerator.
Kelvin
scale is based on Carnot cycle efficiency.
Entropy:
DS = DQ/DT ; the entropy of an isolated system can
never decrease
S =
k*ln(w) ; (Boltzmann constant k = R/NA , number of possible
microscopic states w)
A
wave is any disturbance from an equilibrium condition that propagates from one
region to another; a mechanical
wave
travels within a medium material.
v =
lf
y =
A*sin(2*p*(t/T - x/l)) = A*sin(wt - kx)
with k = 2p/l and w = vk
Wave
equation: second partial of y with respect to x equals second partial of y with
respect to t, over v2
Speed
of transverse wave on a string: v = sqrt(F/m)
Speed
of longitudinal wave in a fluid: v = sqrt(B/p) ; (bulk modulus B, density p)
Speed
of longitudinal wave in a solid rod: v = sqrt(Y/p) ; (Young's modulus Y)
Speed
of sound in ideal gas: v = sqrt((Cp/Cv)RT/M)
Average
power of sinusoidal wave on stretched string: P = w2A2 sqrt(mF)/2 ; called intensity for longitudinal
The
principle of superposition states that the total wave displacement at any point
where two or more
waves overlap is the sum of
the displacements of the individual waves.
When
a wave is reflected from a fixed or free end of a stretched string, the
incident and reflected waves
combine to form standing
wave with nodes l/2 apart and antinodes
between.
y =
(A*sin(k*x)*cos(w*t) ; (angular frequency w = 2pf, wave number k = 2p/l)
If
both ends of a string are fixed, standing waves occur only when the string
length is an integer multiple of
l/2; f = nv/(2L)
Each
frequency and its associated vibration pattern is called a normal mode.
The
lowest frequency is the fundamental frequency f = sqrt(F/m)/(2L)
A
closed end of a pipe or tube is a displacement node and a pressure antinode.
Open
pipe: f = nv/(2L) for integral n; Stopped pipe: f = nv/(4L) for odd n
Interference
(in-phase constructive or out-of-phase destructive) interference is the overlap
of waves.
Forced
oscillation is the vibration at the same frequency as an applied periodically
varying force, which
causes resonance if near a
normal-mode frequency.
Pressure
amplitude of sound: p = BkA ; (bulk modulus B)
Loudness
depends on amplitude and frequency, pitch on frequency, and tone quality
(timbre) on harmonic
content and the attack and
decay characteristics.
Intensity
is the time average rate at which energy is transported by the wave per unit
area.;
I = p2/(2rv) ; (pressure amplitude p)
Sound
intensity level (in decibels): b = (10 dB)log (I/I0)
; I0 = 10-12 W/m2
Beats
are two tones with slightly different frequencies sounded together; f = f1
- f2
Doppler
effect: fL = (v + vL)/(v
+ vS) fS
Shock
wave: sin(a) = v/vS
; (vS > v, the speed of sound)
Charge
is conserved; likes repel and opposites attract.
Coulomb's
Law: F = kq1q2/r2
k =
1/(4pe0) = 8.99*109 Nm2/C2
; e0 is permittivity of free
space = 8.85*10-12 C2/(N*m2)
Electric
field is the force per unit charge exerted on a test charge at any point; E = kq/r2 = F/q
Unit
of electric field is N/C or V/m
The
principle of superposition of forces or fields states that the total force or
field on a charge is the vector
sum of the forces or fields
exerted by the individual charges.
The
tangent to a field line is the direction of E.
Electric
dipole: magnitude p = q*d, ; torque t = p*E*sin(f) ; (cross product of dipole moment and
electric field)
Potential
energy of an electric field: U = -p*E ; (dipole moment p)
Electric
flux is the flow of electric field through a surface; flux F = integral of E*dA
Gauss's
Law states that the total electric flux through a closed surface equals 4pk times the enclosed
charge; F = 4pkQenc
Excess
charge on a conductor at rest resides entirely on the surface.
Line
charge: E = 2kl/r
Sheet
charge E = 2pks
Outside
solid insulating sphere: E = kQ/r2
Inside
solid insulating sphere: E = kQr/R3
Potential
energy: U = kq1q2/r
Potential
is potential energy per unit charge; V = kq/r
V2
- V1 = integral of E times dl
1
eV = 1.602*10-19 J
An
equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential has the same value at
every point.; field lines
cross equipotentials
perpendicular.
Ex
= -dV/dx
A
capacitor is any pair of conductors separated by an insulating material; capacitance
C = Q/V
Parallel
plate capacitor: C = A/(4pkd)
Unit
of capacitance is the farad = 1 C/V
Capacitors
in series: 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + . . .
Capacitors
in parallel: C = C1 + C2 + . . .
Energy
of capacitor: U = QV/2 = CV2/2 = Q2/(2C)
Capacitance
increases by a factor of K, the dielectric constant, when the space between the
conductors is
filled with a dielectric
material; C = KC0 ; permittivity is Ke0
In dielectric
breakdown, under electric field greater than dielectric strength, dielectrics
become conductors.
Current
is the amount of charge flowing through a specified area per unit time.
Unit
of current is ampere = C/s
I =
n*|q|*vd*A = J*A ; (concentration n, drift
velocity vd, current density J )
Resistivity:
r = E/J
Unit
of resistivity is ohm-meter.
Resistivity
increases with temperature and is small in conductors.
Ohm's
Law: V = I*R
R =
rL/A
Unit
of electromotive force is volt.
V =
e - I*r
Power:
P = V*I = I2*R
Resistors
in series: R = R1 + R2 + . . .
Resistors
in parallel: 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . .
Kirchhoff's
junction rule states that the sum of the currents into any junction must be
zero.
Kirchhoff's
loop rule states that the sum of potential differences around any loop must be
zero.
Deflection
is proportional to current in a d'Arsonval galvonometer.
A
galvanometer with a shunt resistor is an ammeter and should have low
resistance.
A
galvanometer with a resistor in series is a voltmeter and should have high
resistance.
Capacitor
charged by battery with resistor in series: q = C*e*(1 - e-t/RC), I = (e/R)*e-t/RC
The
time constant t = RC is time for charge to
get within 1/e of its final value.
Capacitor
discharge: q = C*e*(e-t/RC), I = (e/R)*(1 - e-t/RC)
Household
wiring systems include hot, neutral, and ground wires.
Magnetic
force: F = cross product of q*v and B ; (magnetic field B)
Unit
of magnetic field is tesla = Nm/A
Magnetic
flux: F = integral of B times dA
Unit
of magnetic flux is weber = T*m2
Gauss's
Law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface
is zero; magnetic
field lines always close on
themselves.
Magnetic
force is perpendicular to velocity; R = m*v/(|q|*B)
Electric
and magnetic forces cancel when v = E/B
Force
on a conductor: dF = cross product of I*ldl and B
t = I*B*A*sin(f)
Magnetic
dipole moment: m = I*A, U = -m*B*cos(f)
Motion
of a dc motor rotor throught the magnetic field
causes an induced emf called back emf.
The
Hall effect is a potential difference measured perpendicular to the direction
of current in a conductor
when the conductor is placed
in a magnetic field; electric force must just balance magnetic force on a
moving
charge; E*n*q = -J*B
B =
(m0/(4p))*cross(q*v, r-hat)/r2
m0 is permeabilityh
of free space, 4p*10-7 Wb/(A*m)
Law
of Biot and Savart: dB = (m0/(4p))*cross(I*dl, r-hat)/r2
Magnetic
field at a distance from a long straight conductor: B = m0I/(2pr)
F/L
= m0II'/(2pr)
Magnetic
field along axis from a circular loop: B = m0NIa2/(2*(x2+a2)3/2
Magnetic
field in solenoid: B = m0nI ; (n turns per length); 0
outside
Magnetic
field in toroidial solenoid: B = m0NI/(2pr) ; (N turns) ; 0 outside
Ampere's
Law states that the line integral of the magnetic field around any closed path
equals m0 times the
net current through the area
enclosed by the path; integral of B times dl = u0Iencl
Magnetic
susceptibility is a material's relative permeability minus one; it is small +
for paramagnets, small
- for diamagnets, and large
for ferromagnets
Displacement
current acts as a source of magnetic field like current; ID = e*(dF/dt) and can be added into
Ampere's
Law: integral of B times dl
= u0(ic + id)
Faraday's
Law states that the induced electromotive force in a closed loop equals the
negative of the time
rate of change of magnetic
flux through the loop; line integral of E times dl = -dFB/dt
Lenz's
Law states that an induced current or emf always tends to oppose or cancel out
the change that
caused it.
Induced
emf for moving conductor: e = v*B*L
Eddy
currents are induced in the volume of a bulk piece of conducting material in a
changing magnetic field.
Maxwell's
equations include Gauss's law of electrostatics, Gauss's law for magnetic
fields, Ampere's law
with Maxwell's displacement
current generalization, and Faraday's law.
A
changing current in one circuit causes a changing magnetic flux in another
circuit; e1 = -M*(di2/dt)
with
mutual inductance M = N1*FB1/i2 ; (N wire
coils)
Unit
of mutual inductance is the henry = Wb/A = V*s/A = ohm*s
Self-induced
emf: e = -L*(di/dt) with self-inductance L = NFB/I
U =
L*I2/2
Magnetic
energy density: u = B2/(2*m0)
Time
constant of resistor - inductor circuit t = L/R, the time for current
to reach 1/e of its final value.
Angular
frequency of electrical oscillations for L-C circuit: w = sqrt(1/(LC))
Angular
frequency of damped oscillation in L-R-C series: w = sqrt(1/(LC) - R2/(4L2)),
critically damped at
R2 = 4L/C
A phasor
vector rotates counterclockwise with constant angular velocity equal to the
angular frequency of
the sinusoidally varying emf
produced by an alternator or ac source.
Rectified
average current: Irav = 2*I/p
Root
mean square current: Irms = I/sqrt(2)
i
= I*cos(wt)
v =
V*cos(wt + f) ; (phase angle f)
VR
= IR, VL = IXL, VC = IXC
Inductive
reactance of inductor, leading current by 90 degrees: XL = wL
Capacitive
reactance of capacitor, lagging current by 90 degrees: XC = 1/(wC)
V =
I*Z, Z is impedance
At
resonance angular frequency w0 = 1/sqrt(LC) the current is
maximum and impedance minimum;
impedance equals resistance
and voltage and current are in phase.
E =
cB
c =
1/sqrt(e0m0)
E
and B are perpendicular and direction of wave is direction of E cross B.
E =
Emaxsin(wt - kx);
B = Bmaxsin(wt - kx)
The
Poynting vector gives the energy flow rate (power per unit area) in an
electromagnetic wave in a
vacuum; S = cross(E,B)/m0
The
time-average value of the Poynting magnitude is the intensity; I = e0cEmax2/2
For
an absorbing surface, radiation pressure is I/c; for a reflecting surface, it
is 2I/c.
Wave
speed in dielectric v = c/sqrt(K*Km)
Nodal
planes for E in a standing wave reflected at x=0 are at multiples of p and nodal planes for B at odd
multiples of p/2.
An
oscillating electric dipole produces a wave in all directions, transverse far
from the source, zero
intensity along the axis.
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Radio 10 m / 108
Hz; Microwaves 10-2 m, 1010 Hz; Infrared 10-5
m, 1013 Hz; Visible 10-6 m, 1015 Hz (Violet
420
nm, Yellow 580 nm, Red 670
nm) ; Ultraviolet 10-7 m, 1016 Hz; X rays 10-10
m, 1018 Hz; Gamma rays 10-12 m,
1020 Hz
A
wave front is a surface of constant phase, and a perpendicular line called a
ray is along the direction of propagation.
Frequency
of light is the same in all materials.
Index
of refraction: n = c/v ; l = l0/n
Incident,
reflected, and refracted rays and normal all lie in the plane of incidence.
Snell's
law of refraction: nasin(qa) = nbsin(qb)
Total
internal reflection if angle of incidence > critical angle: sin(qcritical) = nb/na
Dispersion
is the variation of the index of refraction with wavelength.
The
wave is polarized in the direction of the E field.
Malus'
law gives the intensity of polarized light transmitted through a polarizing
filter used as an analyzer:
I = Imaxcos2(f)
Brewster's
law states that the reflected unpolarized light striking an interface is
completely polarized
perpendicular to the plane
of incidence if the angle of incidence is tan(q) = nb/na
Superimposed
linearly polarized waves result in circular or elliptical polarized light.
A
birefringent material has different indexes of refraction for two perpendicular
directions of polarization.
A
dichroic material has preferential absorption for one polarization direction.
Huygen's principle states that if the position of a wave front at one instant
is known, the position of the
front at a later time can be
constructed by imagining the front as a source of secondary wavelets.
Reflected
or refracted rays appear to diverge from an image point; if they actually
converge there it is a real
image; if not, it is a
virtual image.
Lateral
magnification: m = y'/y ; (m>0 erect; m<0 inverted)
Paraxial
rays are close to and nearly parallel to the optic axis; nonparaxial rays cause
spherical aberration.
The
focal point of a mirror is the point to which rays parallel to the axis
converge after reflection form a
concave mirror or appear to
diverge from a convex mirror; focal length is distance to vertex.
Reflection:
1/s + 1/s' = 1/f (=0 for plane mirror); m = -s'/s (=1 for plane mirror)
Refraction:
na/s + nb/s
= (nb-na)/R (=0 for plane
surface); m = -nas'/(nbs)
(=1 for plane surface)
Lensmaker's Equation: 1/f = (n-1)(1/R1-1/R2)
Sign
rules: s>0 for real object, s' for real image, R>0 for center of
curvature on outgoing side, m>0 erect image
Optical Instruments
Camera
forms real, inverted, reduced image.
Intensity
is inversely proportional to f-number = (focal length)/(aperture diameter)
Simple
magnifier: M = (25 cm)/f
Microscopes
and telescopes form an image with a lens on the barrel and then a virtual image
with the
eyepiece at infinity.
Coherence
is an unchanging phase relationship between two waves.
The
principle of superposition states that the total wave disturbance at any point
is the sum of the disturbances.
Constructive
interference occurs at integral multiples of wavelength: dsin(q) = ml ; (integer m)
Destructive
interference occurs at odd multiples of l/2: dsin(q) = (m+1/2)l ; (integer m)
Position
of mth bright fringe ym
= Rml/d
Amplitude
of superimposing: Ep = 2*E*|cos(f/2) ; (phase angle f)
Intensity
of superimposing: I = I0cos2(f/2)
Constructive
interference for reflection from film of thickness t: 2t = ml ; (integer m)
The
Michelson interferometer, made to detect motion of earth relative to a
hypothetic ether, uses
monochromatic source and
measures wavelengths.
Energy
is carried in photon bundles; E = hf ; (Planck's constant h)
Diffraction
occurs when light passes through an aperture or around an edge.
In
Fraunhofer diffraction, the source and observer are far from the obstructing
surface.
In
Fresnel diffraction, the source or observer is relatively close to the
obstructing surface.
Destructive
interference occurs at sin(q) = ml/a ; (slit width a, integer m)
Maximum
interference intensity for a diffraction grating is at dsin(q) = ml ; (integer m)
The
Bragg condition for 3D x-ray diffraction grating states that constructive
interference occurs when
angles of incidence and
scattering are equal and 2dsin(q) = ml ; (integer m)
The
Airy disk, of angular size sin(q) = 1.22l/D is a central bright spot in the
diffraction pattern from a
circular aperture.
Rayleigh's
criterion states that two point objects are just barely resolved when their
angular separation is
given by the angular size of
the Airy disk.
A
hologram is a photographic record of an interference pattern formed by light
scattered from an object and
direct light coming form the source.
In
time dilation, time intervals in frames of reference moving relative to each
other are compared.
In
length contraction, distances in frames of reference moving relative to each
other are compared.
The
Lorentz coordinate transformation relates the coordinates and time of an event
in an inertial coordinate
system to the coordinates
and time of the same event as observed in a second inertial system moving
relative to the first.
The
Doppler effect is the frequency shift from a source due to the relative motion
of source and observer.
Einstein's
theory of special relativity: m = m0/sqrt(1-v2/c2)